alamb commented on code in PR #369:
URL: https://github.com/apache/arrow-site/pull/369#discussion_r1234054961
##########
_posts/2023-06-15-our-journey-at-f5-with-apache-arrow-part-2.md:
##########
@@ -0,0 +1,199 @@
+---
+layout: post
+title: "Our journey at F5 with Apache Arrow (part 2)"
Review Comment:
I wonder if including some specifics about the content of this post in the
title would help people find it more readily. Something like the following
perhaps. This is just a suggestion and at least one potential reason to leave
the current title is for consistency with part 1.
```suggestion
title: "Our journey at F5 with Apache Arrow (part 2): Adaptive Schemas and
Sorting to Optimize Memory Usage"
```
##########
_posts/2023-06-15-our-journey-at-f5-with-apache-arrow-part-2.md:
##########
@@ -0,0 +1,199 @@
+---
+layout: post
+title: "Our journey at F5 with Apache Arrow (part 2)"
+date: "2023-06-15 00:00:00"
+author: Laurent Quérel
+categories: [application]
+---
+<!--
+{% comment %}
+Licensed to the Apache Software Foundation (ASF) under one or more
+contributor license agreements. See the NOTICE file distributed with
+this work for additional information regarding copyright ownership.
+The ASF licenses this file to you under the Apache License, Version 2.0
+(the "License"); you may not use this file except in compliance with
+the License. You may obtain a copy of the License at
+
+http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+
+Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
+WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+limitations under the License.
+{% endcomment %}
+-->
+
+In the previous
[article](https://arrow.apache.org/blog/2023/04/11/our-journey-at-f5-with-apache-arrow-part-1/),
we discussed our use of Apache Arrow within the context of the OpenTelemetry
project. We investigated various techniques to maximize the efficiency of
Apache Arrow, aiming to find the optimal balance between data compression ratio
and queryability. The compression results speak for themselves, boasting
improvements ranging from 1.5x to 5x better than the original OTLP protocol. In
this article, we will delve into three techniques that have enabled us to
enhance both the compression ratio and memory usage of Apache Arrow buffers
within the current version of the [OTel Arrow
protocol](https://github.com/f5/otel-arrow-adapter).
+
+The first technique we'll discuss aims to optimize schemas in terms of memory
usage. As you'll see, the gains can be substantial, potentially halving memory
usage in certain cases. The second section will delve more deeply into the
various approaches that can be used to handle recursive schema definitions.
Lastly, we'll emphasize that the design of your schema(s), coupled with the
sorts you can apply at the record level, play a pivotal role in maximizing the
benefits of Apache Arrow and its columnar representation.
+
+## Handling dynamic and unknown data distributions
+
+In certain contexts, the comprehensive definition of an Arrow schema can end
up being overly broad and complex in order to cover all possible cases that you
intend to represent in columnar form. However, as is often the case with
complex schemas, only a subset of this schema will actually be utilized for a
specific deployment. Similarly, it's not always possible to determine the
optimal dictionary encoding for one or more fields in advance. Employing a
broad and very general schema that covers all cases is usually more
memory-intensive. This is because, for most implementations, a column without
value still continues to consume memory space. Likewise, a column with
dictionary encoding that indexes a uint64 will occupy four times more memory
than the same column with a dictionary encoding based on a uint8.
+
+To illustrate this more concretely, let's consider an OTel collector
positioned at the output of a production environment, receiving a telemetry
data stream produced by a large and dynamic set of servers. Invariably, the
content of this telemetry stream will change in volume and nature over time.
It's challenging to predict the optimal schema in such a scenario, and it's
equally difficult to know in advance the distribution of a particular attribute
of the telemetry data passing through this point.
+
+To optimize such scenarios, we have adopted an intermediary approach that we
have named **dynamic Arrow schema**, aiming to gradually adapt the schema based
on the observed data. The general principle is relatively simple. We start with
a general schema defining the maximum envelope of what should be represented.
Some fields of this schema will be declared optional, while other fields will
be encoded with multiple possible options depending on the observed
distribution. In theory, this principle can be applied to other types of
transformations (e.g., recursive column creation) but we will let your
imagination explore these other options. So if you encounter data streams where
certain fields are not utilized, some union variants remain unused, and/or the
value distribution of a field cannot be determined a priori, it may be
worthwhile to invest time in implementing this model. This can lead to improved
efficiency in terms of compression ratio, memory usage, and processing speed.
+
+The following Go Arrow schema definition provides an example of such a schema,
instrumented with a collection of annotations. These annotations will be
processed by an enhanced Record Builder, equipped with the ability to
dynamically adapt the schema. The structure of this system is illustrated in
Figure 1.
+
+```go
+var (
+ // Arrow schema for the OTLP Arrow Traces record (without attributes, links,
and events).
+ TracesSchema = arrow.NewSchema([]arrow.Field{
+ {Name: constants.ID, Type: arrow.PrimitiveTypes.Uint16, Nullable: true},
+ {Name: constants.Resource, Type: arrow.StructOf([]arrow.Field{
+ {Name: constants.ID, Type: arrow.PrimitiveTypes.Uint16, Nullable:
true},
+ {Name: constants.SchemaUrl,Type: arrow.BinaryTypes.String,Metadata:
schema.Metadata(schema.Dictionary8), Nullable: true},
+ {Name: constants.DroppedAttributesCount,Type:
arrow.PrimitiveTypes.Uint32,Nullable: true},
+ }...), Nullable: true},
+ {Name: constants.Scope, Type: arrow.StructOf([]arrow.Field{
+ {Name: constants.ID, Type: arrow.PrimitiveTypes.Uint16, Metadata:
acommon.Metadata(acommon.DeltaEncoding), Nullable: true},
+ {Name: constants.Name, Type: arrow.BinaryTypes.String, Metadata:
acommon.Metadata(acommon.Dictionary8), Nullable: true},
+ {Name: constants.Version, Type: arrow.BinaryTypes.String, Metadata:
acommon.Metadata(acommon.Dictionary8), Nullable: true},
+ {Name: constants.DroppedAttributesCount, Type:
arrow.PrimitiveTypes.Uint32, Nullable: true},
+ }...), Nullable: true},
+ {Name: constants.SchemaUrl, Type: arrow.BinaryTypes.String, Metadata:
schema.Metadata(schema.Dictionary8), Nullable: true},
+ {Name: constants.StartTimeUnixNano, Type:
arrow.FixedWidthTypes.Timestamp_ns},
+ {Name: constants.DurationTimeUnixNano, Type:
arrow.FixedWidthTypes.Duration_ms, Metadata:
schema.Metadata(schema.Dictionary8)},
+ {Name: constants.TraceId, Type: &arrow.FixedSizeBinaryType{ByteWidth:
16}},
+ {Name: constants.SpanId, Type: &arrow.FixedSizeBinaryType{ByteWidth: 8}},
+ {Name: constants.TraceState, Type: arrow.BinaryTypes.String, Metadata:
schema.Metadata(schema.Dictionary8), Nullable: true},
+ {Name: constants.ParentSpanId, Type:
&arrow.FixedSizeBinaryType{ByteWidth: 8}, Nullable: true},
+ {Name: constants.Name, Type: arrow.BinaryTypes.String, Metadata:
schema.Metadata(schema.Dictionary8)},
+ {Name: constants.KIND, Type: arrow.PrimitiveTypes.Int32, Metadata:
schema.Metadata(schema.Dictionary8), Nullable: true},
+ {Name: constants.DroppedAttributesCount, Type:
arrow.PrimitiveTypes.Uint32, Nullable: true},
+ {Name: constants.DroppedEventsCount, Type: arrow.PrimitiveTypes.Uint32,
Nullable: true},
+ {Name: constants.DroppedLinksCount, Type: arrow.PrimitiveTypes.Uint32,
Nullable: true},
+ {Name: constants.Status, Type: arrow.StructOf([]arrow.Field{
+ {Name: constants.StatusCode, Type: arrow.PrimitiveTypes.Int32,
Metadata: schema.Metadata(schema.Dictionary8), Nullable: true},
+ {Name: constants.StatusMessage, Type: arrow.BinaryTypes.String,
Metadata: schema.Metadata(schema.Dictionary8), Nullable: true},
+ }...), Nullable: true},
+ }, nil)
+ )
+```
+
+In this example, Arrow field-level metadata are employed to designate when a
field is optional (Nullable: true) or to specify the minimal dictionary
encoding applicable to a particular field (Metadata Dictionary8/16/…). Now
let’s imagine a scenario utilizing this schema in a straightforward scenario,
wherein only a handful of fields are actually in use, and the cardinality of
most dictionary-encoded fields is low (i.e., below 2^8). Ideally, we'd want a
system capable of dynamically constructing the following simplified schema,
which, in essence, is a strict subset of the original schema.
+
+```go
+var (
+ // Simplified schema definition generated by the Arrow Record encoder based
on
+ // the data observed.
+ TracesSchema = arrow.NewSchema([]arrow.Field{
+ {Name: constants.ID, Type: arrow.PrimitiveTypes.Uint16, Nullable: true},
+ {Name: constants.StartTimeUnixNano, Type:
arrow.FixedWidthTypes.Timestamp_ns},
+ {Name: constants.TraceId, Type: &arrow.FixedSizeBinaryType{ByteWidth: 16}},
+ {Name: constants.SpanId, Type: &arrow.FixedSizeBinaryType{ByteWidth: 8}},
+ {Name: constants.Name, Type: &arrow.DictionaryType {
+ IndexType: arrow.PrimitiveTypes.Uint8,
+ ValueType: arrow.BinaryTypes.String}},
+ {Name: constants.KIND, Type: &arrow.DictionaryType {
+ IndexType: arrow.PrimitiveTypes.Uint8,
+ ValueType: arrow.PrimitiveTypes.Int32,
+ }, Nullable: true},
+ }, nil)
+)
+```
+
+Additionally, we desire a system capable of automatically adapting the
aforementioned schema if it encounters new fields or existing fields with a
cardinality exceeding the size of the current dictionary definition in future
batches. In extreme scenarios, if the cardinality of a specific field surpasses
a certain threshold, we would prefer the system to automatically revert to the
non-dictionary representation (mechanism of dictionary overflow). That is
precisely what we will elaborate on in the remainder of this section.
+
+An overview of the different components and events used to implement this
approach is depicted in figure 1.
+
+<figure style="text-align: center;">
+ <img src="{{ site.baseurl
}}/img/journey-apache-arrow/adaptive-schema-architecture.svg" width="100%"
class="img-responsive" alt="Fig 1: Adaptive Arrow schema architecture
overview.">
+ <figcaption>Fig 1: Adaptive Arrow schema architecture overview.</figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+The overall Adaptive Arrow schema component takes a data stream segmented into
batches and produces one or multiple streams of Arrow Records (one schema per
stream). Each of these records is defined with an Arrow schema, which is based
both on the annotated Arrow schema and the shape of fields observed in the
incoming data.
+
+More specifically, the process of the Adaptive Arrow schema component consists
of four main phases
+
+**Initialization phase**
+
+During the initialization phase, the Arrow Record Encoder reads the annotated
Arrow schema (i.e. the reference schema) and generates a collection of
transformations. When these transformations are applied to the reference
schema, they yield the first minimal Arrow schema that adheres to the
constraints depicted by these annotations. In this initial iteration, all
optional fields are eliminated, and all dictionary-encoded fields are
configured to utilize the smallest encoding as defined by the annotation. These
transformations form a tree, reflecting the structure of the reference schema.
+
+**Feeding phase**
+
+Following the initialization is the feeding phase. Here, the Arrow Record
Encoder scans the batch and attempts to store all the fields in an Arrow Record
Builder, which is defined by the schema created in the prior step. If a field
exists in the data but is not included in the schema, the encoder will trigger
a `missing field` event. This process continues until the current batch is
completely processed. An additional internal check is conducted on all
dictionary-encoded fields in the Arrow Record builder to ensure there’s no
dictionary overflow (i.e. more unique entries than the cardinality of the index
permits). `Dictionary overflow` events are generated if such a situation is
detected. Consequently, by the end, all unknown fields and dictionary overflow
would have been detected, or alternatively, no discrepancies would have
surfaced if the data aligns perfectly with the schema.
+
+**Corrective phase**
+
+If at least one event has been generated, a corrective phase will be initiated
to fix the schema. This optional stage considers all the events generated in
the previous stage and adjusts the transformation tree accordingly to align
with the observed data. A `missing field` event will remove a NoField
transformation for the corresponding field. A `dictionary overflow` event will
modify the dictionary transformation to mirror the event (e.g. changing the
index type from uint8 to uint16, or if the maximum index size has been reached,
the transformation will remove the dictionary-encoding and revert to the
original non-dictionary-encoded type). The updated transformation tree is
subsequently used to create a new schema and a fresh Arrow Record Builder. This
Record Builder is then utilized to replay the preceding feeding phase with the
batch that wasn’t processed correctly.
+
+**Routing phase**
+
+Once a Record Builder has been properly fed, an Arrow Record is created, and
the system transitions into the routing phase. The router component calculates
a schema signature of the record and utilizes this signature to route the
record to an existing Arrow stream compatible with the signature, or it
initiates a new stream if there is no match.
+
+This four-phase process should gradually adapt and stabilize the schema to a
structure and definition that is optimized for a specific data stream. Unused
fields will never unnecessarily consume memory. Dictionary-encoded fields will
be defined with the most optimal index size based on the observed data
cardinality, and fields with a cardinality exceeding a certain threshold
(defined by configuration) will automatically revert to their
non-dictionary-encoded versions.
+
+To effectively execute this approach, you must ensure that there is a
sufficient level of flexibility on the receiver side. It's crucial that your
downstream pipeline remains functional even when some fields are missing in the
schema or when various dictionary index configurations are employed. While this
may not always be feasible without implementing additional transformations upon
reception, it proves worthwhile in certain scenarios.
+
+The following results highlight the significant memory usage reduction
achieved through the application of various optimization techniques. These
results were gathered using a schema akin to the one previously presented. The
considerable memory efficiency underscores the effectiveness of this approach.
+
+<figure style="text-align: center;">
+ <img src="{{ site.baseurl
}}/img/journey-apache-arrow/memory-usage-25k-traces.png" width="100%"
class="img-responsive" alt="Fig 2: Comparative analysis of memory usage for
different schema optimizations.">
+ <figcaption>Fig 2: Comparative analysis of memory usage for different schema
optimizations.</figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+The concept of a transformation tree enables a generalized approach to perform
various types of schema optimizations based on the knowledge acquired from the
data. This architecture is highly flexible; the current implementation allows
for the removal of unused fields, the application of the most specific
dictionary encoding, and the optimization of union type variants. In the
future, there is potential for introducing additional optimizations that can be
expressed as transformations on the initial schema. An implementation of this
approach is available
[here](https://github.com/f5/otel-arrow-adapter/tree/main/pkg/otel/common/schema).
+
+## Handling recursive schema definition
+
+Apache Arrow does not support recursive schema definitions, implying that data
structures with variable depth cannot be directly represented. Figure 3
exemplifies such a recursive definition where the value of an attribute can
either be a simple data type, a list of values, or a map of values. The depth
of this definition cannot be predetermined.
+
+<figure style="text-align: center;">
+ <img src="{{ site.baseurl
}}/img/journey-apache-arrow/recursive-def-otel-attributes.svg" width="100%"
class="img-responsive" alt="Fig 3: Recursive definition of OTel attributes.">
+ <figcaption>Fig 3: Recursive definition of OTel attributes.</figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+Several strategies can be employed to circumvent this limitation. Technically,
the dynamic schema concept we've presented could be expanded to dynamically
update the schema to include any missing level of recursion. However, for this
use case, this method is complex and has the notable downside of not offering
any assurance on the maximum size of the schema. This lack of constraint can
pose security issues; hence, this approach isn't elaborated upon.
+
+The second approach consists of breaking the recursion by employing a
serialization format that supports the definition of a recursive schema. The
result of this serialization can then be integrated into the Arrow record as a
binary type column, effectively halting the recursion at a specific level. To
fully leverage the advantages of columnar representation, it is crucial to
apply this ad-hoc serialization as deeply within the data structure as
feasible. In the context of OpenTelemetry, this is performed at the attribute
level – more specifically, at the second level of attributes.
+
+A variety of serialization formats, such as protobuf or CBOR, can be employed
to encode recursive data. Without particular treatment, these binary columns
may not be easily queryable by the existing Arrow query engines. Therefore,
it's crucial to thoughtfully ascertain when and where to apply such a
technique. While I'm not aware of any attempts to address this limitation
within the Arrow system, it doesn't seem insurmountable and would constitute a
valuable extension. This would help reduce the complexity of integrating Arrow
with other systems that rely on such recursive definitions.
+
+## Importance of sorting
+
+In our preceding
[article](https://arrow.apache.org/blog/2023/04/11/our-journey-at-f5-with-apache-arrow-part-1/),
we explored a variety of strategies to represent hierarchical data models,
including nested structures based on struct/list/map/union, denormalization and
flattening representations, as well as a multi-record approach. Each method
presents its unique advantages and disadvantages. However, in this last
section, we'll delve deeper into the multi-record approach, focusing
specifically on its ability to offer versatile sorting options and how these
options contribute to an enhanced compression ratio.
+
+In the OTel Arrow protocol, we leverage the multi-record approach to represent
metrics, logs, and traces. The following entity-relationship diagram offers a
simplified version of various record schemas and illustrates their
relationships, specifically those used to represent gauges and sums. A
comprehensive description of the Arrow data model employed in OpenTelemetry can
be accessed
[here](https://github.com/f5/otel-arrow-adapter/blob/main/docs/data_model.md).
+
+These Arrow records, also referred to as tables, form a hierarchy with
`METRICS` acting as the primary entry point. Each table can be independently
sorted according to one or more columns. This sorting strategy facilitates the
grouping of duplicated data, thereby improving the compression ratio.
+
+<figure style="text-align: center;">
+ <img src="{{ site.baseurl
}}/img/journey-apache-arrow/metric-dp-data-model.png" width="100%"
class="img-responsive" alt="Fig 4: A simplified entity-relationship diagram
representing OTel sum & gauge metrics.">
+ <figcaption>Fig 4: A simplified entity-relationship diagram representing
OTel sum & gauge metrics.</figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+The relationship between the primary `METRICS` table and the secondary
`RESOURCE_ATTRS`, `SCOPE_ATTRS`, and `NUMBER_DATA_POINTS` tables is established
through a unique `id` in the main table and a `parent_id` column in each of the
secondary tables. This {id,parent_id} pair represents an overhead that should
be minimized to the greatest extent possible post-compression.
+
+To achieve this, the ordering process for the different tables adheres to the
hierarchy, starting from the main table down to the leaf. The main table is
sorted (by one or multiple columns), and then an incremental id is assigned to
each row. This numerical id is stored using delta-encoding, which is
implemented on top of Arrow.
+
+The secondary tables directly connected to the main table are sorted using the
same principle, but the `parent_id` column is consistently utilized as the last
column in the sort statement. Including the `parent_id` column in the sort
statement enables the use of a variation of delta encoding. The efficiency of
this approach is summarized in the chart below.
+
+<figure style="text-align: center;">
+ <img src="{{ site.baseurl
}}/img/journey-apache-arrow/compressed-message-size.png" width="100%"
class="img-responsive" alt="Fig 5: Comparative analysis of compression ratios -
OTLP Protocol vs. Two variations of the OTel Arrow Protocol with multivariate
metrics stream. (lower percentage is better)">
+ <figcaption>Fig 5: Comparative analysis of compression ratios - OTLP
Protocol vs. Two variations of the OTel Arrow Protocol with multivariate
metrics stream. (lower percentage is better)</figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+The second column presents the average size of the OTLP batch both pre- and
post-ZSTD compression for batches of varying sizes. This column serves as a
reference point for the ensuing two columns. The third column displays results
for the OTel Arrow protocol without any sorting applied, while the final column
showcases results for the OTel Arrow protocol with sorting enabled.
+
+Before compression, the average batch sizes for the two OTel Arrow
configurations are predictably similar. However, post-compression, the benefits
of sorting each individual table on the compression ratio become immediately
apparent. Without sorting, the OTel Arrow protocol exhibits a compression ratio
that's 1.40 to 1.67 times better than the reference. When sorting is enabled,
the OTel Arrow protocol outperforms the reference by a factor ranging from 4.94
to 7.21 times!
+
+The gains in terms of compression obviously depend on your data and the
redundancy of information present in your data batches. According to our
observations, the choice of a good sort generally improves the compression
ratio by a factor of 1.5 to 8.
+
+Decomposing a complex schema into multiple simpler schemas to enhance sorting
capabilities, coupled with a targeted approach to efficiently encode the
identifiers representing the relationships, emerges as an effective strategy
for enhancing overall data compression. This method also eliminates complex
Arrow data types, such as lists, maps, and unions. Consequently, it not only
improves but also simplifies data query-ability. This simplification proves
beneficial for existing query engines, which may struggle to operate on
intricate schemas.
+
+## Conclusion and next steps
+
+This article concludes our two-part series on Apache Arrow, wherein we have
explored various strategies to maximize the utility of Apache Arrow within
specific contexts. The adaptive schema architecture presented in the second
part of this series paves the way for future optimization possibilities. We
look forward to seeing what the community can add based on this contribution.
+
+Apache Arrow is an exceptional project, continually enhanced by a thriving
ecosystem. However, throughout our exploration, we have noticed certain gaps or
points of friction that, if addressed, could significantly enrich the overall
experience.
+* Designing an efficient Arrow schema can, in some cases, prove to be a
challenging task. Having the **ability to collect statistics** at the record
level could facilitate this design phase (data distribution per field,
dictionary stats, Arrow array sizes before/after compression, and so on). These
statistics would also assist in identifying the most effective columns on which
to base the record sorting.
+* **Native support for recursive schemas** would also increase adoption by
simplifying the use of Arrow in complex scenarios. While I'm not aware of any
attempts to address this limitation within the Arrow system, it doesn't seem
insurmountable and would constitute a valuable extension. This would help
reduce the complexity of integrating Arrow with other systems that rely on such
recursive definitions.
+* **Harmonizing the support for data types as well as IPC stream
capabilities** would also be a major benefit. Predominant client libraries
support nested and hierarchical schemas, but their use is limited due to a lack
of full support across the rest of the ecosystem. For example, list and/or
union types are not well supported by query engines or Parquet bridges. Also,
the advanced dictionary support within IPC streams is not consistent across
different implementations.
+* **Optimizing the support of complex schemas** in terms of memory consumption
and compression rate could be improved by natively integrating the concept of
the dynamic schema presented in this article.
+* **Detecting dictionary overflows** (index level) is not something that is
easy to test on the fly. The API could be improved to indicate this overflow as
soon as an insertion occurs.
+
+Our effort to utilize Apache Arrow in conjunction with OpenTelemetry has
produced encouraging results. While this has necessitated considerable
investment in terms of development, exploration, and benchmarking, we hope that
these articles will aid in accelerating your journey with Apache Arrow. Looking
ahead, we envision an end-to-end integration with Apache Arrow and plan to
significantly extend our use of the Arrow ecosystem. This extension involves
providing a bridge with Parquet and integrating with a query engine such as
DataFusion, with the goal of processing telemetry streams within the collector.
Review Comment:
This future work sound exciting!
##########
_posts/2023-06-15-our-journey-at-f5-with-apache-arrow-part-2.md:
##########
@@ -0,0 +1,199 @@
+---
+layout: post
+title: "Our journey at F5 with Apache Arrow (part 2)"
+date: "2023-06-15 00:00:00"
+author: Laurent Quérel
+categories: [application]
+---
+<!--
+{% comment %}
+Licensed to the Apache Software Foundation (ASF) under one or more
+contributor license agreements. See the NOTICE file distributed with
+this work for additional information regarding copyright ownership.
+The ASF licenses this file to you under the Apache License, Version 2.0
+(the "License"); you may not use this file except in compliance with
+the License. You may obtain a copy of the License at
+
+http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+
+Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
+WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+limitations under the License.
+{% endcomment %}
+-->
+
+In the previous
[article](https://arrow.apache.org/blog/2023/04/11/our-journey-at-f5-with-apache-arrow-part-1/),
we discussed our use of Apache Arrow within the context of the OpenTelemetry
project. We investigated various techniques to maximize the efficiency of
Apache Arrow, aiming to find the optimal balance between data compression ratio
and queryability. The compression results speak for themselves, boasting
improvements ranging from 1.5x to 5x better than the original OTLP protocol. In
this article, we will delve into three techniques that have enabled us to
enhance both the compression ratio and memory usage of Apache Arrow buffers
within the current version of the [OTel Arrow
protocol](https://github.com/f5/otel-arrow-adapter).
+
+The first technique we'll discuss aims to optimize schemas in terms of memory
usage. As you'll see, the gains can be substantial, potentially halving memory
usage in certain cases. The second section will delve more deeply into the
various approaches that can be used to handle recursive schema definitions.
Lastly, we'll emphasize that the design of your schema(s), coupled with the
sorts you can apply at the record level, play a pivotal role in maximizing the
benefits of Apache Arrow and its columnar representation.
+
+## Handling dynamic and unknown data distributions
+
+In certain contexts, the comprehensive definition of an Arrow schema can end
up being overly broad and complex in order to cover all possible cases that you
intend to represent in columnar form. However, as is often the case with
complex schemas, only a subset of this schema will actually be utilized for a
specific deployment. Similarly, it's not always possible to determine the
optimal dictionary encoding for one or more fields in advance. Employing a
broad and very general schema that covers all cases is usually more
memory-intensive. This is because, for most implementations, a column without
value still continues to consume memory space. Likewise, a column with
dictionary encoding that indexes a uint64 will occupy four times more memory
than the same column with a dictionary encoding based on a uint8.
+
+To illustrate this more concretely, let's consider an OTel collector
positioned at the output of a production environment, receiving a telemetry
data stream produced by a large and dynamic set of servers. Invariably, the
content of this telemetry stream will change in volume and nature over time.
It's challenging to predict the optimal schema in such a scenario, and it's
equally difficult to know in advance the distribution of a particular attribute
of the telemetry data passing through this point.
+
+To optimize such scenarios, we have adopted an intermediary approach that we
have named **dynamic Arrow schema**, aiming to gradually adapt the schema based
on the observed data. The general principle is relatively simple. We start with
a general schema defining the maximum envelope of what should be represented.
Some fields of this schema will be declared optional, while other fields will
be encoded with multiple possible options depending on the observed
distribution. In theory, this principle can be applied to other types of
transformations (e.g., recursive column creation) but we will let your
imagination explore these other options. So if you encounter data streams where
certain fields are not utilized, some union variants remain unused, and/or the
value distribution of a field cannot be determined a priori, it may be
worthwhile to invest time in implementing this model. This can lead to improved
efficiency in terms of compression ratio, memory usage, and processing speed.
+
+The following Go Arrow schema definition provides an example of such a schema,
instrumented with a collection of annotations. These annotations will be
processed by an enhanced Record Builder, equipped with the ability to
dynamically adapt the schema. The structure of this system is illustrated in
Figure 1.
+
+```go
+var (
+ // Arrow schema for the OTLP Arrow Traces record (without attributes, links,
and events).
+ TracesSchema = arrow.NewSchema([]arrow.Field{
+ {Name: constants.ID, Type: arrow.PrimitiveTypes.Uint16, Nullable: true},
+ {Name: constants.Resource, Type: arrow.StructOf([]arrow.Field{
+ {Name: constants.ID, Type: arrow.PrimitiveTypes.Uint16, Nullable:
true},
+ {Name: constants.SchemaUrl,Type: arrow.BinaryTypes.String,Metadata:
schema.Metadata(schema.Dictionary8), Nullable: true},
+ {Name: constants.DroppedAttributesCount,Type:
arrow.PrimitiveTypes.Uint32,Nullable: true},
+ }...), Nullable: true},
+ {Name: constants.Scope, Type: arrow.StructOf([]arrow.Field{
+ {Name: constants.ID, Type: arrow.PrimitiveTypes.Uint16, Metadata:
acommon.Metadata(acommon.DeltaEncoding), Nullable: true},
+ {Name: constants.Name, Type: arrow.BinaryTypes.String, Metadata:
acommon.Metadata(acommon.Dictionary8), Nullable: true},
Review Comment:
As a style suggestion, I find it helpful to have annotated inline comments
for an example, such as the following. I don't feel strongly about this, I just
wanted to mention it in case you found it helpful:
```suggestion
TracesSchema = arrow.NewSchema([]arrow.Field{
// Nullabe:true means the field is optional, in this case of 16 bit
unsigned integers
{Name: constants.ID, Type: arrow.PrimitiveTypes.Uint16, Nullable:
true},
{Name: constants.Resource, Type: arrow.StructOf([]arrow.Field{
{Name: constants.ID, Type: arrow.PrimitiveTypes.Uint16, Nullable:
true},
{Name: constants.SchemaUrl,Type: arrow.BinaryTypes.String,Metadata:
schema.Metadata(schema.Dictionary8), Nullable: true},
{Name: constants.DroppedAttributesCount,Type:
arrow.PrimitiveTypes.Uint32,Nullable: true},
}...), Nullable: true},
{Name: constants.Scope, Type: arrow.StructOf([]arrow.Field{
{Name: constants.ID, Type: arrow.PrimitiveTypes.Uint16, Metadata:
acommon.Metadata(acommon.DeltaEncoding), Nullable: true},
// --- Use dictionary with 8 bit integers initially ----
{Name: constants.Name, Type: arrow.BinaryTypes.String, Metadata:
acommon.Metadata(acommon.Dictionary8), Nullable: true},
```
##########
_posts/2023-06-15-our-journey-at-f5-with-apache-arrow-part-2.md:
##########
@@ -0,0 +1,199 @@
+---
+layout: post
+title: "Our journey at F5 with Apache Arrow (part 2)"
+date: "2023-06-15 00:00:00"
+author: Laurent Quérel
+categories: [application]
+---
+<!--
+{% comment %}
+Licensed to the Apache Software Foundation (ASF) under one or more
+contributor license agreements. See the NOTICE file distributed with
+this work for additional information regarding copyright ownership.
+The ASF licenses this file to you under the Apache License, Version 2.0
+(the "License"); you may not use this file except in compliance with
+the License. You may obtain a copy of the License at
+
+http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+
+Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
+WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+limitations under the License.
+{% endcomment %}
+-->
+
+In the previous
[article](https://arrow.apache.org/blog/2023/04/11/our-journey-at-f5-with-apache-arrow-part-1/),
we discussed our use of Apache Arrow within the context of the OpenTelemetry
project. We investigated various techniques to maximize the efficiency of
Apache Arrow, aiming to find the optimal balance between data compression ratio
and queryability. The compression results speak for themselves, boasting
improvements ranging from 1.5x to 5x better than the original OTLP protocol. In
this article, we will delve into three techniques that have enabled us to
enhance both the compression ratio and memory usage of Apache Arrow buffers
within the current version of the [OTel Arrow
protocol](https://github.com/f5/otel-arrow-adapter).
+
+The first technique we'll discuss aims to optimize schemas in terms of memory
usage. As you'll see, the gains can be substantial, potentially halving memory
usage in certain cases. The second section will delve more deeply into the
various approaches that can be used to handle recursive schema definitions.
Lastly, we'll emphasize that the design of your schema(s), coupled with the
sorts you can apply at the record level, play a pivotal role in maximizing the
benefits of Apache Arrow and its columnar representation.
+
+## Handling dynamic and unknown data distributions
+
+In certain contexts, the comprehensive definition of an Arrow schema can end
up being overly broad and complex in order to cover all possible cases that you
intend to represent in columnar form. However, as is often the case with
complex schemas, only a subset of this schema will actually be utilized for a
specific deployment. Similarly, it's not always possible to determine the
optimal dictionary encoding for one or more fields in advance. Employing a
broad and very general schema that covers all cases is usually more
memory-intensive. This is because, for most implementations, a column without
value still continues to consume memory space. Likewise, a column with
dictionary encoding that indexes a uint64 will occupy four times more memory
than the same column with a dictionary encoding based on a uint8.
+
+To illustrate this more concretely, let's consider an OTel collector
positioned at the output of a production environment, receiving a telemetry
data stream produced by a large and dynamic set of servers. Invariably, the
content of this telemetry stream will change in volume and nature over time.
It's challenging to predict the optimal schema in such a scenario, and it's
equally difficult to know in advance the distribution of a particular attribute
of the telemetry data passing through this point.
+
+To optimize such scenarios, we have adopted an intermediary approach that we
have named **dynamic Arrow schema**, aiming to gradually adapt the schema based
on the observed data. The general principle is relatively simple. We start with
a general schema defining the maximum envelope of what should be represented.
Some fields of this schema will be declared optional, while other fields will
be encoded with multiple possible options depending on the observed
distribution. In theory, this principle can be applied to other types of
transformations (e.g., recursive column creation) but we will let your
imagination explore these other options. So if you encounter data streams where
certain fields are not utilized, some union variants remain unused, and/or the
value distribution of a field cannot be determined a priori, it may be
worthwhile to invest time in implementing this model. This can lead to improved
efficiency in terms of compression ratio, memory usage, and processing speed.
+
+The following Go Arrow schema definition provides an example of such a schema,
instrumented with a collection of annotations. These annotations will be
processed by an enhanced Record Builder, equipped with the ability to
dynamically adapt the schema. The structure of this system is illustrated in
Figure 1.
+
+```go
+var (
+ // Arrow schema for the OTLP Arrow Traces record (without attributes, links,
and events).
+ TracesSchema = arrow.NewSchema([]arrow.Field{
+ {Name: constants.ID, Type: arrow.PrimitiveTypes.Uint16, Nullable: true},
+ {Name: constants.Resource, Type: arrow.StructOf([]arrow.Field{
+ {Name: constants.ID, Type: arrow.PrimitiveTypes.Uint16, Nullable:
true},
+ {Name: constants.SchemaUrl,Type: arrow.BinaryTypes.String,Metadata:
schema.Metadata(schema.Dictionary8), Nullable: true},
+ {Name: constants.DroppedAttributesCount,Type:
arrow.PrimitiveTypes.Uint32,Nullable: true},
+ }...), Nullable: true},
+ {Name: constants.Scope, Type: arrow.StructOf([]arrow.Field{
+ {Name: constants.ID, Type: arrow.PrimitiveTypes.Uint16, Metadata:
acommon.Metadata(acommon.DeltaEncoding), Nullable: true},
+ {Name: constants.Name, Type: arrow.BinaryTypes.String, Metadata:
acommon.Metadata(acommon.Dictionary8), Nullable: true},
+ {Name: constants.Version, Type: arrow.BinaryTypes.String, Metadata:
acommon.Metadata(acommon.Dictionary8), Nullable: true},
+ {Name: constants.DroppedAttributesCount, Type:
arrow.PrimitiveTypes.Uint32, Nullable: true},
+ }...), Nullable: true},
+ {Name: constants.SchemaUrl, Type: arrow.BinaryTypes.String, Metadata:
schema.Metadata(schema.Dictionary8), Nullable: true},
+ {Name: constants.StartTimeUnixNano, Type:
arrow.FixedWidthTypes.Timestamp_ns},
+ {Name: constants.DurationTimeUnixNano, Type:
arrow.FixedWidthTypes.Duration_ms, Metadata:
schema.Metadata(schema.Dictionary8)},
+ {Name: constants.TraceId, Type: &arrow.FixedSizeBinaryType{ByteWidth:
16}},
+ {Name: constants.SpanId, Type: &arrow.FixedSizeBinaryType{ByteWidth: 8}},
+ {Name: constants.TraceState, Type: arrow.BinaryTypes.String, Metadata:
schema.Metadata(schema.Dictionary8), Nullable: true},
+ {Name: constants.ParentSpanId, Type:
&arrow.FixedSizeBinaryType{ByteWidth: 8}, Nullable: true},
+ {Name: constants.Name, Type: arrow.BinaryTypes.String, Metadata:
schema.Metadata(schema.Dictionary8)},
+ {Name: constants.KIND, Type: arrow.PrimitiveTypes.Int32, Metadata:
schema.Metadata(schema.Dictionary8), Nullable: true},
+ {Name: constants.DroppedAttributesCount, Type:
arrow.PrimitiveTypes.Uint32, Nullable: true},
+ {Name: constants.DroppedEventsCount, Type: arrow.PrimitiveTypes.Uint32,
Nullable: true},
+ {Name: constants.DroppedLinksCount, Type: arrow.PrimitiveTypes.Uint32,
Nullable: true},
+ {Name: constants.Status, Type: arrow.StructOf([]arrow.Field{
+ {Name: constants.StatusCode, Type: arrow.PrimitiveTypes.Int32,
Metadata: schema.Metadata(schema.Dictionary8), Nullable: true},
+ {Name: constants.StatusMessage, Type: arrow.BinaryTypes.String,
Metadata: schema.Metadata(schema.Dictionary8), Nullable: true},
+ }...), Nullable: true},
+ }, nil)
+ )
+```
+
+In this example, Arrow field-level metadata are employed to designate when a
field is optional (Nullable: true) or to specify the minimal dictionary
encoding applicable to a particular field (Metadata Dictionary8/16/…). Now
let’s imagine a scenario utilizing this schema in a straightforward scenario,
wherein only a handful of fields are actually in use, and the cardinality of
most dictionary-encoded fields is low (i.e., below 2^8). Ideally, we'd want a
system capable of dynamically constructing the following simplified schema,
which, in essence, is a strict subset of the original schema.
+
+```go
+var (
+ // Simplified schema definition generated by the Arrow Record encoder based
on
+ // the data observed.
+ TracesSchema = arrow.NewSchema([]arrow.Field{
+ {Name: constants.ID, Type: arrow.PrimitiveTypes.Uint16, Nullable: true},
+ {Name: constants.StartTimeUnixNano, Type:
arrow.FixedWidthTypes.Timestamp_ns},
+ {Name: constants.TraceId, Type: &arrow.FixedSizeBinaryType{ByteWidth: 16}},
+ {Name: constants.SpanId, Type: &arrow.FixedSizeBinaryType{ByteWidth: 8}},
+ {Name: constants.Name, Type: &arrow.DictionaryType {
+ IndexType: arrow.PrimitiveTypes.Uint8,
+ ValueType: arrow.BinaryTypes.String}},
+ {Name: constants.KIND, Type: &arrow.DictionaryType {
+ IndexType: arrow.PrimitiveTypes.Uint8,
+ ValueType: arrow.PrimitiveTypes.Int32,
+ }, Nullable: true},
+ }, nil)
+)
+```
+
+Additionally, we desire a system capable of automatically adapting the
aforementioned schema if it encounters new fields or existing fields with a
cardinality exceeding the size of the current dictionary definition in future
batches. In extreme scenarios, if the cardinality of a specific field surpasses
a certain threshold, we would prefer the system to automatically revert to the
non-dictionary representation (mechanism of dictionary overflow). That is
precisely what we will elaborate on in the remainder of this section.
+
+An overview of the different components and events used to implement this
approach is depicted in figure 1.
+
+<figure style="text-align: center;">
+ <img src="{{ site.baseurl
}}/img/journey-apache-arrow/adaptive-schema-architecture.svg" width="100%"
class="img-responsive" alt="Fig 1: Adaptive Arrow schema architecture
overview.">
+ <figcaption>Fig 1: Adaptive Arrow schema architecture overview.</figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+The overall Adaptive Arrow schema component takes a data stream segmented into
batches and produces one or multiple streams of Arrow Records (one schema per
stream). Each of these records is defined with an Arrow schema, which is based
both on the annotated Arrow schema and the shape of fields observed in the
incoming data.
+
+More specifically, the process of the Adaptive Arrow schema component consists
of four main phases
+
+**Initialization phase**
+
+During the initialization phase, the Arrow Record Encoder reads the annotated
Arrow schema (i.e. the reference schema) and generates a collection of
transformations. When these transformations are applied to the reference
schema, they yield the first minimal Arrow schema that adheres to the
constraints depicted by these annotations. In this initial iteration, all
optional fields are eliminated, and all dictionary-encoded fields are
configured to utilize the smallest encoding as defined by the annotation. These
transformations form a tree, reflecting the structure of the reference schema.
Review Comment:
> and all dictionary-encoded fields are configured to utilize the smallest
encoding as defined by the annotation.
I was a little confused about this wording as the example above *only*
shows dictionaries using Dictionary8 (rather than some combination of smaller
and larger encodings)
##########
_posts/2023-06-15-our-journey-at-f5-with-apache-arrow-part-2.md:
##########
@@ -0,0 +1,199 @@
+---
+layout: post
+title: "Our journey at F5 with Apache Arrow (part 2)"
+date: "2023-06-15 00:00:00"
+author: Laurent Quérel
+categories: [application]
+---
+<!--
+{% comment %}
+Licensed to the Apache Software Foundation (ASF) under one or more
+contributor license agreements. See the NOTICE file distributed with
+this work for additional information regarding copyright ownership.
+The ASF licenses this file to you under the Apache License, Version 2.0
+(the "License"); you may not use this file except in compliance with
+the License. You may obtain a copy of the License at
+
+http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+
+Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
+WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+limitations under the License.
+{% endcomment %}
+-->
+
+In the previous
[article](https://arrow.apache.org/blog/2023/04/11/our-journey-at-f5-with-apache-arrow-part-1/),
we discussed our use of Apache Arrow within the context of the OpenTelemetry
project. We investigated various techniques to maximize the efficiency of
Apache Arrow, aiming to find the optimal balance between data compression ratio
and queryability. The compression results speak for themselves, boasting
improvements ranging from 1.5x to 5x better than the original OTLP protocol. In
this article, we will delve into three techniques that have enabled us to
enhance both the compression ratio and memory usage of Apache Arrow buffers
within the current version of the [OTel Arrow
protocol](https://github.com/f5/otel-arrow-adapter).
+
+The first technique we'll discuss aims to optimize schemas in terms of memory
usage. As you'll see, the gains can be substantial, potentially halving memory
usage in certain cases. The second section will delve more deeply into the
various approaches that can be used to handle recursive schema definitions.
Lastly, we'll emphasize that the design of your schema(s), coupled with the
sorts you can apply at the record level, play a pivotal role in maximizing the
benefits of Apache Arrow and its columnar representation.
+
+## Handling dynamic and unknown data distributions
+
+In certain contexts, the comprehensive definition of an Arrow schema can end
up being overly broad and complex in order to cover all possible cases that you
intend to represent in columnar form. However, as is often the case with
complex schemas, only a subset of this schema will actually be utilized for a
specific deployment. Similarly, it's not always possible to determine the
optimal dictionary encoding for one or more fields in advance. Employing a
broad and very general schema that covers all cases is usually more
memory-intensive. This is because, for most implementations, a column without
value still continues to consume memory space. Likewise, a column with
dictionary encoding that indexes a uint64 will occupy four times more memory
than the same column with a dictionary encoding based on a uint8.
+
+To illustrate this more concretely, let's consider an OTel collector
positioned at the output of a production environment, receiving a telemetry
data stream produced by a large and dynamic set of servers. Invariably, the
content of this telemetry stream will change in volume and nature over time.
It's challenging to predict the optimal schema in such a scenario, and it's
equally difficult to know in advance the distribution of a particular attribute
of the telemetry data passing through this point.
+
+To optimize such scenarios, we have adopted an intermediary approach that we
have named **dynamic Arrow schema**, aiming to gradually adapt the schema based
on the observed data. The general principle is relatively simple. We start with
a general schema defining the maximum envelope of what should be represented.
Some fields of this schema will be declared optional, while other fields will
be encoded with multiple possible options depending on the observed
distribution. In theory, this principle can be applied to other types of
transformations (e.g., recursive column creation) but we will let your
imagination explore these other options. So if you encounter data streams where
certain fields are not utilized, some union variants remain unused, and/or the
value distribution of a field cannot be determined a priori, it may be
worthwhile to invest time in implementing this model. This can lead to improved
efficiency in terms of compression ratio, memory usage, and processing speed.
+
+The following Go Arrow schema definition provides an example of such a schema,
instrumented with a collection of annotations. These annotations will be
processed by an enhanced Record Builder, equipped with the ability to
dynamically adapt the schema. The structure of this system is illustrated in
Figure 1.
+
+```go
+var (
+ // Arrow schema for the OTLP Arrow Traces record (without attributes, links,
and events).
+ TracesSchema = arrow.NewSchema([]arrow.Field{
+ {Name: constants.ID, Type: arrow.PrimitiveTypes.Uint16, Nullable: true},
+ {Name: constants.Resource, Type: arrow.StructOf([]arrow.Field{
+ {Name: constants.ID, Type: arrow.PrimitiveTypes.Uint16, Nullable:
true},
+ {Name: constants.SchemaUrl,Type: arrow.BinaryTypes.String,Metadata:
schema.Metadata(schema.Dictionary8), Nullable: true},
+ {Name: constants.DroppedAttributesCount,Type:
arrow.PrimitiveTypes.Uint32,Nullable: true},
+ }...), Nullable: true},
+ {Name: constants.Scope, Type: arrow.StructOf([]arrow.Field{
+ {Name: constants.ID, Type: arrow.PrimitiveTypes.Uint16, Metadata:
acommon.Metadata(acommon.DeltaEncoding), Nullable: true},
+ {Name: constants.Name, Type: arrow.BinaryTypes.String, Metadata:
acommon.Metadata(acommon.Dictionary8), Nullable: true},
+ {Name: constants.Version, Type: arrow.BinaryTypes.String, Metadata:
acommon.Metadata(acommon.Dictionary8), Nullable: true},
+ {Name: constants.DroppedAttributesCount, Type:
arrow.PrimitiveTypes.Uint32, Nullable: true},
+ }...), Nullable: true},
+ {Name: constants.SchemaUrl, Type: arrow.BinaryTypes.String, Metadata:
schema.Metadata(schema.Dictionary8), Nullable: true},
+ {Name: constants.StartTimeUnixNano, Type:
arrow.FixedWidthTypes.Timestamp_ns},
+ {Name: constants.DurationTimeUnixNano, Type:
arrow.FixedWidthTypes.Duration_ms, Metadata:
schema.Metadata(schema.Dictionary8)},
+ {Name: constants.TraceId, Type: &arrow.FixedSizeBinaryType{ByteWidth:
16}},
+ {Name: constants.SpanId, Type: &arrow.FixedSizeBinaryType{ByteWidth: 8}},
+ {Name: constants.TraceState, Type: arrow.BinaryTypes.String, Metadata:
schema.Metadata(schema.Dictionary8), Nullable: true},
+ {Name: constants.ParentSpanId, Type:
&arrow.FixedSizeBinaryType{ByteWidth: 8}, Nullable: true},
+ {Name: constants.Name, Type: arrow.BinaryTypes.String, Metadata:
schema.Metadata(schema.Dictionary8)},
+ {Name: constants.KIND, Type: arrow.PrimitiveTypes.Int32, Metadata:
schema.Metadata(schema.Dictionary8), Nullable: true},
+ {Name: constants.DroppedAttributesCount, Type:
arrow.PrimitiveTypes.Uint32, Nullable: true},
+ {Name: constants.DroppedEventsCount, Type: arrow.PrimitiveTypes.Uint32,
Nullable: true},
+ {Name: constants.DroppedLinksCount, Type: arrow.PrimitiveTypes.Uint32,
Nullable: true},
+ {Name: constants.Status, Type: arrow.StructOf([]arrow.Field{
+ {Name: constants.StatusCode, Type: arrow.PrimitiveTypes.Int32,
Metadata: schema.Metadata(schema.Dictionary8), Nullable: true},
+ {Name: constants.StatusMessage, Type: arrow.BinaryTypes.String,
Metadata: schema.Metadata(schema.Dictionary8), Nullable: true},
+ }...), Nullable: true},
+ }, nil)
+ )
+```
+
+In this example, Arrow field-level metadata are employed to designate when a
field is optional (Nullable: true) or to specify the minimal dictionary
encoding applicable to a particular field (Metadata Dictionary8/16/…). Now
let’s imagine a scenario utilizing this schema in a straightforward scenario,
wherein only a handful of fields are actually in use, and the cardinality of
most dictionary-encoded fields is low (i.e., below 2^8). Ideally, we'd want a
system capable of dynamically constructing the following simplified schema,
which, in essence, is a strict subset of the original schema.
+
+```go
+var (
+ // Simplified schema definition generated by the Arrow Record encoder based
on
+ // the data observed.
+ TracesSchema = arrow.NewSchema([]arrow.Field{
+ {Name: constants.ID, Type: arrow.PrimitiveTypes.Uint16, Nullable: true},
+ {Name: constants.StartTimeUnixNano, Type:
arrow.FixedWidthTypes.Timestamp_ns},
+ {Name: constants.TraceId, Type: &arrow.FixedSizeBinaryType{ByteWidth: 16}},
+ {Name: constants.SpanId, Type: &arrow.FixedSizeBinaryType{ByteWidth: 8}},
+ {Name: constants.Name, Type: &arrow.DictionaryType {
+ IndexType: arrow.PrimitiveTypes.Uint8,
+ ValueType: arrow.BinaryTypes.String}},
+ {Name: constants.KIND, Type: &arrow.DictionaryType {
+ IndexType: arrow.PrimitiveTypes.Uint8,
+ ValueType: arrow.PrimitiveTypes.Int32,
+ }, Nullable: true},
+ }, nil)
+)
+```
+
+Additionally, we desire a system capable of automatically adapting the
aforementioned schema if it encounters new fields or existing fields with a
cardinality exceeding the size of the current dictionary definition in future
batches. In extreme scenarios, if the cardinality of a specific field surpasses
a certain threshold, we would prefer the system to automatically revert to the
non-dictionary representation (mechanism of dictionary overflow). That is
precisely what we will elaborate on in the remainder of this section.
+
+An overview of the different components and events used to implement this
approach is depicted in figure 1.
+
+<figure style="text-align: center;">
+ <img src="{{ site.baseurl
}}/img/journey-apache-arrow/adaptive-schema-architecture.svg" width="100%"
class="img-responsive" alt="Fig 1: Adaptive Arrow schema architecture
overview.">
+ <figcaption>Fig 1: Adaptive Arrow schema architecture overview.</figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+The overall Adaptive Arrow schema component takes a data stream segmented into
batches and produces one or multiple streams of Arrow Records (one schema per
stream). Each of these records is defined with an Arrow schema, which is based
both on the annotated Arrow schema and the shape of fields observed in the
incoming data.
+
+More specifically, the process of the Adaptive Arrow schema component consists
of four main phases
+
+**Initialization phase**
+
+During the initialization phase, the Arrow Record Encoder reads the annotated
Arrow schema (i.e. the reference schema) and generates a collection of
transformations. When these transformations are applied to the reference
schema, they yield the first minimal Arrow schema that adheres to the
constraints depicted by these annotations. In this initial iteration, all
optional fields are eliminated, and all dictionary-encoded fields are
configured to utilize the smallest encoding as defined by the annotation. These
transformations form a tree, reflecting the structure of the reference schema.
+
+**Feeding phase**
+
+Following the initialization is the feeding phase. Here, the Arrow Record
Encoder scans the batch and attempts to store all the fields in an Arrow Record
Builder, which is defined by the schema created in the prior step. If a field
exists in the data but is not included in the schema, the encoder will trigger
a `missing field` event. This process continues until the current batch is
completely processed. An additional internal check is conducted on all
dictionary-encoded fields in the Arrow Record builder to ensure there’s no
dictionary overflow (i.e. more unique entries than the cardinality of the index
permits). `Dictionary overflow` events are generated if such a situation is
detected. Consequently, by the end, all unknown fields and dictionary overflow
would have been detected, or alternatively, no discrepancies would have
surfaced if the data aligns perfectly with the schema.
+
+**Corrective phase**
+
+If at least one event has been generated, a corrective phase will be initiated
to fix the schema. This optional stage considers all the events generated in
the previous stage and adjusts the transformation tree accordingly to align
with the observed data. A `missing field` event will remove a NoField
transformation for the corresponding field. A `dictionary overflow` event will
modify the dictionary transformation to mirror the event (e.g. changing the
index type from uint8 to uint16, or if the maximum index size has been reached,
the transformation will remove the dictionary-encoding and revert to the
original non-dictionary-encoded type). The updated transformation tree is
subsequently used to create a new schema and a fresh Arrow Record Builder. This
Record Builder is then utilized to replay the preceding feeding phase with the
batch that wasn’t processed correctly.
+
+**Routing phase**
+
+Once a Record Builder has been properly fed, an Arrow Record is created, and
the system transitions into the routing phase. The router component calculates
a schema signature of the record and utilizes this signature to route the
record to an existing Arrow stream compatible with the signature, or it
initiates a new stream if there is no match.
+
+This four-phase process should gradually adapt and stabilize the schema to a
structure and definition that is optimized for a specific data stream. Unused
fields will never unnecessarily consume memory. Dictionary-encoded fields will
be defined with the most optimal index size based on the observed data
cardinality, and fields with a cardinality exceeding a certain threshold
(defined by configuration) will automatically revert to their
non-dictionary-encoded versions.
+
+To effectively execute this approach, you must ensure that there is a
sufficient level of flexibility on the receiver side. It's crucial that your
downstream pipeline remains functional even when some fields are missing in the
schema or when various dictionary index configurations are employed. While this
may not always be feasible without implementing additional transformations upon
reception, it proves worthwhile in certain scenarios.
+
+The following results highlight the significant memory usage reduction
achieved through the application of various optimization techniques. These
results were gathered using a schema akin to the one previously presented. The
considerable memory efficiency underscores the effectiveness of this approach.
+
+<figure style="text-align: center;">
+ <img src="{{ site.baseurl
}}/img/journey-apache-arrow/memory-usage-25k-traces.png" width="100%"
class="img-responsive" alt="Fig 2: Comparative analysis of memory usage for
different schema optimizations.">
+ <figcaption>Fig 2: Comparative analysis of memory usage for different schema
optimizations.</figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+The concept of a transformation tree enables a generalized approach to perform
various types of schema optimizations based on the knowledge acquired from the
data. This architecture is highly flexible; the current implementation allows
for the removal of unused fields, the application of the most specific
dictionary encoding, and the optimization of union type variants. In the
future, there is potential for introducing additional optimizations that can be
expressed as transformations on the initial schema. An implementation of this
approach is available
[here](https://github.com/f5/otel-arrow-adapter/tree/main/pkg/otel/common/schema).
+
+## Handling recursive schema definition
+
+Apache Arrow does not support recursive schema definitions, implying that data
structures with variable depth cannot be directly represented. Figure 3
exemplifies such a recursive definition where the value of an attribute can
either be a simple data type, a list of values, or a map of values. The depth
of this definition cannot be predetermined.
+
+<figure style="text-align: center;">
+ <img src="{{ site.baseurl
}}/img/journey-apache-arrow/recursive-def-otel-attributes.svg" width="100%"
class="img-responsive" alt="Fig 3: Recursive definition of OTel attributes.">
+ <figcaption>Fig 3: Recursive definition of OTel attributes.</figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+Several strategies can be employed to circumvent this limitation. Technically,
the dynamic schema concept we've presented could be expanded to dynamically
update the schema to include any missing level of recursion. However, for this
use case, this method is complex and has the notable downside of not offering
any assurance on the maximum size of the schema. This lack of constraint can
pose security issues; hence, this approach isn't elaborated upon.
+
+The second approach consists of breaking the recursion by employing a
serialization format that supports the definition of a recursive schema. The
result of this serialization can then be integrated into the Arrow record as a
binary type column, effectively halting the recursion at a specific level. To
fully leverage the advantages of columnar representation, it is crucial to
apply this ad-hoc serialization as deeply within the data structure as
feasible. In the context of OpenTelemetry, this is performed at the attribute
level – more specifically, at the second level of attributes.
+
+A variety of serialization formats, such as protobuf or CBOR, can be employed
to encode recursive data. Without particular treatment, these binary columns
may not be easily queryable by the existing Arrow query engines. Therefore,
it's crucial to thoughtfully ascertain when and where to apply such a
technique. While I'm not aware of any attempts to address this limitation
within the Arrow system, it doesn't seem insurmountable and would constitute a
valuable extension. This would help reduce the complexity of integrating Arrow
with other systems that rely on such recursive definitions.
+
+## Importance of sorting
+
+In our preceding
[article](https://arrow.apache.org/blog/2023/04/11/our-journey-at-f5-with-apache-arrow-part-1/),
we explored a variety of strategies to represent hierarchical data models,
including nested structures based on struct/list/map/union, denormalization and
flattening representations, as well as a multi-record approach. Each method
presents its unique advantages and disadvantages. However, in this last
section, we'll delve deeper into the multi-record approach, focusing
specifically on its ability to offer versatile sorting options and how these
options contribute to an enhanced compression ratio.
+
+In the OTel Arrow protocol, we leverage the multi-record approach to represent
metrics, logs, and traces. The following entity-relationship diagram offers a
simplified version of various record schemas and illustrates their
relationships, specifically those used to represent gauges and sums. A
comprehensive description of the Arrow data model employed in OpenTelemetry can
be accessed
[here](https://github.com/f5/otel-arrow-adapter/blob/main/docs/data_model.md).
+
+These Arrow records, also referred to as tables, form a hierarchy with
`METRICS` acting as the primary entry point. Each table can be independently
sorted according to one or more columns. This sorting strategy facilitates the
grouping of duplicated data, thereby improving the compression ratio.
+
+<figure style="text-align: center;">
+ <img src="{{ site.baseurl
}}/img/journey-apache-arrow/metric-dp-data-model.png" width="100%"
class="img-responsive" alt="Fig 4: A simplified entity-relationship diagram
representing OTel sum & gauge metrics.">
+ <figcaption>Fig 4: A simplified entity-relationship diagram representing
OTel sum & gauge metrics.</figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+The relationship between the primary `METRICS` table and the secondary
`RESOURCE_ATTRS`, `SCOPE_ATTRS`, and `NUMBER_DATA_POINTS` tables is established
through a unique `id` in the main table and a `parent_id` column in each of the
secondary tables. This {id,parent_id} pair represents an overhead that should
be minimized to the greatest extent possible post-compression.
+
+To achieve this, the ordering process for the different tables adheres to the
hierarchy, starting from the main table down to the leaf. The main table is
sorted (by one or multiple columns), and then an incremental id is assigned to
each row. This numerical id is stored using delta-encoding, which is
implemented on top of Arrow.
+
+The secondary tables directly connected to the main table are sorted using the
same principle, but the `parent_id` column is consistently utilized as the last
column in the sort statement. Including the `parent_id` column in the sort
statement enables the use of a variation of delta encoding. The efficiency of
this approach is summarized in the chart below.
+
+<figure style="text-align: center;">
+ <img src="{{ site.baseurl
}}/img/journey-apache-arrow/compressed-message-size.png" width="100%"
class="img-responsive" alt="Fig 5: Comparative analysis of compression ratios -
OTLP Protocol vs. Two variations of the OTel Arrow Protocol with multivariate
metrics stream. (lower percentage is better)">
+ <figcaption>Fig 5: Comparative analysis of compression ratios - OTLP
Protocol vs. Two variations of the OTel Arrow Protocol with multivariate
metrics stream. (lower percentage is better)</figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+The second column presents the average size of the OTLP batch both pre- and
post-ZSTD compression for batches of varying sizes. This column serves as a
reference point for the ensuing two columns. The third column displays results
for the OTel Arrow protocol without any sorting applied, while the final column
showcases results for the OTel Arrow protocol with sorting enabled.
+
+Before compression, the average batch sizes for the two OTel Arrow
configurations are predictably similar. However, post-compression, the benefits
of sorting each individual table on the compression ratio become immediately
apparent. Without sorting, the OTel Arrow protocol exhibits a compression ratio
that's 1.40 to 1.67 times better than the reference. When sorting is enabled,
the OTel Arrow protocol outperforms the reference by a factor ranging from 4.94
to 7.21 times!
+
+The gains in terms of compression obviously depend on your data and the
redundancy of information present in your data batches. According to our
observations, the choice of a good sort generally improves the compression
ratio by a factor of 1.5 to 8.
+
+Decomposing a complex schema into multiple simpler schemas to enhance sorting
capabilities, coupled with a targeted approach to efficiently encode the
identifiers representing the relationships, emerges as an effective strategy
for enhancing overall data compression. This method also eliminates complex
Arrow data types, such as lists, maps, and unions. Consequently, it not only
improves but also simplifies data query-ability. This simplification proves
beneficial for existing query engines, which may struggle to operate on
intricate schemas.
+
+## Conclusion and next steps
+
+This article concludes our two-part series on Apache Arrow, wherein we have
explored various strategies to maximize the utility of Apache Arrow within
specific contexts. The adaptive schema architecture presented in the second
part of this series paves the way for future optimization possibilities. We
look forward to seeing what the community can add based on this contribution.
+
+Apache Arrow is an exceptional project, continually enhanced by a thriving
ecosystem. However, throughout our exploration, we have noticed certain gaps or
points of friction that, if addressed, could significantly enrich the overall
experience.
+* Designing an efficient Arrow schema can, in some cases, prove to be a
challenging task. Having the **ability to collect statistics** at the record
level could facilitate this design phase (data distribution per field,
dictionary stats, Arrow array sizes before/after compression, and so on). These
statistics would also assist in identifying the most effective columns on which
to base the record sorting.
+* **Native support for recursive schemas** would also increase adoption by
simplifying the use of Arrow in complex scenarios. While I'm not aware of any
attempts to address this limitation within the Arrow system, it doesn't seem
insurmountable and would constitute a valuable extension. This would help
reduce the complexity of integrating Arrow with other systems that rely on such
recursive definitions.
Review Comment:
I agree the support for List/Struct types is not great across the ecosystem,
and it something we have seen in DataFusion (and are working on it!
https://github.com/apache/arrow-datafusion/issues/2326) -- thank you for
bringing this up.
##########
_posts/2023-06-15-our-journey-at-f5-with-apache-arrow-part-2.md:
##########
@@ -0,0 +1,199 @@
+---
+layout: post
+title: "Our journey at F5 with Apache Arrow (part 2)"
+date: "2023-06-15 00:00:00"
+author: Laurent Quérel
+categories: [application]
+---
+<!--
+{% comment %}
+Licensed to the Apache Software Foundation (ASF) under one or more
+contributor license agreements. See the NOTICE file distributed with
+this work for additional information regarding copyright ownership.
+The ASF licenses this file to you under the Apache License, Version 2.0
+(the "License"); you may not use this file except in compliance with
+the License. You may obtain a copy of the License at
+
+http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+
+Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
+WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+limitations under the License.
+{% endcomment %}
+-->
+
+In the previous
[article](https://arrow.apache.org/blog/2023/04/11/our-journey-at-f5-with-apache-arrow-part-1/),
we discussed our use of Apache Arrow within the context of the OpenTelemetry
project. We investigated various techniques to maximize the efficiency of
Apache Arrow, aiming to find the optimal balance between data compression ratio
and queryability. The compression results speak for themselves, boasting
improvements ranging from 1.5x to 5x better than the original OTLP protocol. In
this article, we will delve into three techniques that have enabled us to
enhance both the compression ratio and memory usage of Apache Arrow buffers
within the current version of the [OTel Arrow
protocol](https://github.com/f5/otel-arrow-adapter).
+
+The first technique we'll discuss aims to optimize schemas in terms of memory
usage. As you'll see, the gains can be substantial, potentially halving memory
usage in certain cases. The second section will delve more deeply into the
various approaches that can be used to handle recursive schema definitions.
Lastly, we'll emphasize that the design of your schema(s), coupled with the
sorts you can apply at the record level, play a pivotal role in maximizing the
benefits of Apache Arrow and its columnar representation.
+
+## Handling dynamic and unknown data distributions
+
+In certain contexts, the comprehensive definition of an Arrow schema can end
up being overly broad and complex in order to cover all possible cases that you
intend to represent in columnar form. However, as is often the case with
complex schemas, only a subset of this schema will actually be utilized for a
specific deployment. Similarly, it's not always possible to determine the
optimal dictionary encoding for one or more fields in advance. Employing a
broad and very general schema that covers all cases is usually more
memory-intensive. This is because, for most implementations, a column without
value still continues to consume memory space. Likewise, a column with
dictionary encoding that indexes a uint64 will occupy four times more memory
than the same column with a dictionary encoding based on a uint8.
+
+To illustrate this more concretely, let's consider an OTel collector
positioned at the output of a production environment, receiving a telemetry
data stream produced by a large and dynamic set of servers. Invariably, the
content of this telemetry stream will change in volume and nature over time.
It's challenging to predict the optimal schema in such a scenario, and it's
equally difficult to know in advance the distribution of a particular attribute
of the telemetry data passing through this point.
+
+To optimize such scenarios, we have adopted an intermediary approach that we
have named **dynamic Arrow schema**, aiming to gradually adapt the schema based
on the observed data. The general principle is relatively simple. We start with
a general schema defining the maximum envelope of what should be represented.
Some fields of this schema will be declared optional, while other fields will
be encoded with multiple possible options depending on the observed
distribution. In theory, this principle can be applied to other types of
transformations (e.g., recursive column creation) but we will let your
imagination explore these other options. So if you encounter data streams where
certain fields are not utilized, some union variants remain unused, and/or the
value distribution of a field cannot be determined a priori, it may be
worthwhile to invest time in implementing this model. This can lead to improved
efficiency in terms of compression ratio, memory usage, and processing speed.
+
+The following Go Arrow schema definition provides an example of such a schema,
instrumented with a collection of annotations. These annotations will be
processed by an enhanced Record Builder, equipped with the ability to
dynamically adapt the schema. The structure of this system is illustrated in
Figure 1.
+
+```go
+var (
+ // Arrow schema for the OTLP Arrow Traces record (without attributes, links,
and events).
+ TracesSchema = arrow.NewSchema([]arrow.Field{
+ {Name: constants.ID, Type: arrow.PrimitiveTypes.Uint16, Nullable: true},
+ {Name: constants.Resource, Type: arrow.StructOf([]arrow.Field{
+ {Name: constants.ID, Type: arrow.PrimitiveTypes.Uint16, Nullable:
true},
+ {Name: constants.SchemaUrl,Type: arrow.BinaryTypes.String,Metadata:
schema.Metadata(schema.Dictionary8), Nullable: true},
+ {Name: constants.DroppedAttributesCount,Type:
arrow.PrimitiveTypes.Uint32,Nullable: true},
+ }...), Nullable: true},
+ {Name: constants.Scope, Type: arrow.StructOf([]arrow.Field{
+ {Name: constants.ID, Type: arrow.PrimitiveTypes.Uint16, Metadata:
acommon.Metadata(acommon.DeltaEncoding), Nullable: true},
+ {Name: constants.Name, Type: arrow.BinaryTypes.String, Metadata:
acommon.Metadata(acommon.Dictionary8), Nullable: true},
+ {Name: constants.Version, Type: arrow.BinaryTypes.String, Metadata:
acommon.Metadata(acommon.Dictionary8), Nullable: true},
+ {Name: constants.DroppedAttributesCount, Type:
arrow.PrimitiveTypes.Uint32, Nullable: true},
+ }...), Nullable: true},
+ {Name: constants.SchemaUrl, Type: arrow.BinaryTypes.String, Metadata:
schema.Metadata(schema.Dictionary8), Nullable: true},
+ {Name: constants.StartTimeUnixNano, Type:
arrow.FixedWidthTypes.Timestamp_ns},
+ {Name: constants.DurationTimeUnixNano, Type:
arrow.FixedWidthTypes.Duration_ms, Metadata:
schema.Metadata(schema.Dictionary8)},
+ {Name: constants.TraceId, Type: &arrow.FixedSizeBinaryType{ByteWidth:
16}},
+ {Name: constants.SpanId, Type: &arrow.FixedSizeBinaryType{ByteWidth: 8}},
+ {Name: constants.TraceState, Type: arrow.BinaryTypes.String, Metadata:
schema.Metadata(schema.Dictionary8), Nullable: true},
+ {Name: constants.ParentSpanId, Type:
&arrow.FixedSizeBinaryType{ByteWidth: 8}, Nullable: true},
+ {Name: constants.Name, Type: arrow.BinaryTypes.String, Metadata:
schema.Metadata(schema.Dictionary8)},
+ {Name: constants.KIND, Type: arrow.PrimitiveTypes.Int32, Metadata:
schema.Metadata(schema.Dictionary8), Nullable: true},
+ {Name: constants.DroppedAttributesCount, Type:
arrow.PrimitiveTypes.Uint32, Nullable: true},
+ {Name: constants.DroppedEventsCount, Type: arrow.PrimitiveTypes.Uint32,
Nullable: true},
+ {Name: constants.DroppedLinksCount, Type: arrow.PrimitiveTypes.Uint32,
Nullable: true},
+ {Name: constants.Status, Type: arrow.StructOf([]arrow.Field{
+ {Name: constants.StatusCode, Type: arrow.PrimitiveTypes.Int32,
Metadata: schema.Metadata(schema.Dictionary8), Nullable: true},
+ {Name: constants.StatusMessage, Type: arrow.BinaryTypes.String,
Metadata: schema.Metadata(schema.Dictionary8), Nullable: true},
+ }...), Nullable: true},
+ }, nil)
+ )
+```
+
+In this example, Arrow field-level metadata are employed to designate when a
field is optional (Nullable: true) or to specify the minimal dictionary
encoding applicable to a particular field (Metadata Dictionary8/16/…). Now
let’s imagine a scenario utilizing this schema in a straightforward scenario,
wherein only a handful of fields are actually in use, and the cardinality of
most dictionary-encoded fields is low (i.e., below 2^8). Ideally, we'd want a
system capable of dynamically constructing the following simplified schema,
which, in essence, is a strict subset of the original schema.
+
+```go
+var (
+ // Simplified schema definition generated by the Arrow Record encoder based
on
+ // the data observed.
+ TracesSchema = arrow.NewSchema([]arrow.Field{
+ {Name: constants.ID, Type: arrow.PrimitiveTypes.Uint16, Nullable: true},
+ {Name: constants.StartTimeUnixNano, Type:
arrow.FixedWidthTypes.Timestamp_ns},
+ {Name: constants.TraceId, Type: &arrow.FixedSizeBinaryType{ByteWidth: 16}},
+ {Name: constants.SpanId, Type: &arrow.FixedSizeBinaryType{ByteWidth: 8}},
+ {Name: constants.Name, Type: &arrow.DictionaryType {
+ IndexType: arrow.PrimitiveTypes.Uint8,
+ ValueType: arrow.BinaryTypes.String}},
+ {Name: constants.KIND, Type: &arrow.DictionaryType {
+ IndexType: arrow.PrimitiveTypes.Uint8,
+ ValueType: arrow.PrimitiveTypes.Int32,
+ }, Nullable: true},
+ }, nil)
+)
+```
+
+Additionally, we desire a system capable of automatically adapting the
aforementioned schema if it encounters new fields or existing fields with a
cardinality exceeding the size of the current dictionary definition in future
batches. In extreme scenarios, if the cardinality of a specific field surpasses
a certain threshold, we would prefer the system to automatically revert to the
non-dictionary representation (mechanism of dictionary overflow). That is
precisely what we will elaborate on in the remainder of this section.
+
+An overview of the different components and events used to implement this
approach is depicted in figure 1.
+
+<figure style="text-align: center;">
+ <img src="{{ site.baseurl
}}/img/journey-apache-arrow/adaptive-schema-architecture.svg" width="100%"
class="img-responsive" alt="Fig 1: Adaptive Arrow schema architecture
overview.">
+ <figcaption>Fig 1: Adaptive Arrow schema architecture overview.</figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+The overall Adaptive Arrow schema component takes a data stream segmented into
batches and produces one or multiple streams of Arrow Records (one schema per
stream). Each of these records is defined with an Arrow schema, which is based
both on the annotated Arrow schema and the shape of fields observed in the
incoming data.
+
+More specifically, the process of the Adaptive Arrow schema component consists
of four main phases
+
+**Initialization phase**
+
+During the initialization phase, the Arrow Record Encoder reads the annotated
Arrow schema (i.e. the reference schema) and generates a collection of
transformations. When these transformations are applied to the reference
schema, they yield the first minimal Arrow schema that adheres to the
constraints depicted by these annotations. In this initial iteration, all
optional fields are eliminated, and all dictionary-encoded fields are
configured to utilize the smallest encoding as defined by the annotation. These
transformations form a tree, reflecting the structure of the reference schema.
+
+**Feeding phase**
+
+Following the initialization is the feeding phase. Here, the Arrow Record
Encoder scans the batch and attempts to store all the fields in an Arrow Record
Builder, which is defined by the schema created in the prior step. If a field
exists in the data but is not included in the schema, the encoder will trigger
a `missing field` event. This process continues until the current batch is
completely processed. An additional internal check is conducted on all
dictionary-encoded fields in the Arrow Record builder to ensure there’s no
dictionary overflow (i.e. more unique entries than the cardinality of the index
permits). `Dictionary overflow` events are generated if such a situation is
detected. Consequently, by the end, all unknown fields and dictionary overflow
would have been detected, or alternatively, no discrepancies would have
surfaced if the data aligns perfectly with the schema.
+
+**Corrective phase**
+
+If at least one event has been generated, a corrective phase will be initiated
to fix the schema. This optional stage considers all the events generated in
the previous stage and adjusts the transformation tree accordingly to align
with the observed data. A `missing field` event will remove a NoField
transformation for the corresponding field. A `dictionary overflow` event will
modify the dictionary transformation to mirror the event (e.g. changing the
index type from uint8 to uint16, or if the maximum index size has been reached,
the transformation will remove the dictionary-encoding and revert to the
original non-dictionary-encoded type). The updated transformation tree is
subsequently used to create a new schema and a fresh Arrow Record Builder. This
Record Builder is then utilized to replay the preceding feeding phase with the
batch that wasn’t processed correctly.
+
+**Routing phase**
+
+Once a Record Builder has been properly fed, an Arrow Record is created, and
the system transitions into the routing phase. The router component calculates
a schema signature of the record and utilizes this signature to route the
record to an existing Arrow stream compatible with the signature, or it
initiates a new stream if there is no match.
+
+This four-phase process should gradually adapt and stabilize the schema to a
structure and definition that is optimized for a specific data stream. Unused
fields will never unnecessarily consume memory. Dictionary-encoded fields will
be defined with the most optimal index size based on the observed data
cardinality, and fields with a cardinality exceeding a certain threshold
(defined by configuration) will automatically revert to their
non-dictionary-encoded versions.
+
+To effectively execute this approach, you must ensure that there is a
sufficient level of flexibility on the receiver side. It's crucial that your
downstream pipeline remains functional even when some fields are missing in the
schema or when various dictionary index configurations are employed. While this
may not always be feasible without implementing additional transformations upon
reception, it proves worthwhile in certain scenarios.
+
+The following results highlight the significant memory usage reduction
achieved through the application of various optimization techniques. These
results were gathered using a schema akin to the one previously presented. The
considerable memory efficiency underscores the effectiveness of this approach.
+
+<figure style="text-align: center;">
+ <img src="{{ site.baseurl
}}/img/journey-apache-arrow/memory-usage-25k-traces.png" width="100%"
class="img-responsive" alt="Fig 2: Comparative analysis of memory usage for
different schema optimizations.">
+ <figcaption>Fig 2: Comparative analysis of memory usage for different schema
optimizations.</figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+The concept of a transformation tree enables a generalized approach to perform
various types of schema optimizations based on the knowledge acquired from the
data. This architecture is highly flexible; the current implementation allows
for the removal of unused fields, the application of the most specific
dictionary encoding, and the optimization of union type variants. In the
future, there is potential for introducing additional optimizations that can be
expressed as transformations on the initial schema. An implementation of this
approach is available
[here](https://github.com/f5/otel-arrow-adapter/tree/main/pkg/otel/common/schema).
+
+## Handling recursive schema definition
+
+Apache Arrow does not support recursive schema definitions, implying that data
structures with variable depth cannot be directly represented. Figure 3
exemplifies such a recursive definition where the value of an attribute can
either be a simple data type, a list of values, or a map of values. The depth
of this definition cannot be predetermined.
+
+<figure style="text-align: center;">
+ <img src="{{ site.baseurl
}}/img/journey-apache-arrow/recursive-def-otel-attributes.svg" width="100%"
class="img-responsive" alt="Fig 3: Recursive definition of OTel attributes.">
+ <figcaption>Fig 3: Recursive definition of OTel attributes.</figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+Several strategies can be employed to circumvent this limitation. Technically,
the dynamic schema concept we've presented could be expanded to dynamically
update the schema to include any missing level of recursion. However, for this
use case, this method is complex and has the notable downside of not offering
any assurance on the maximum size of the schema. This lack of constraint can
pose security issues; hence, this approach isn't elaborated upon.
+
+The second approach consists of breaking the recursion by employing a
serialization format that supports the definition of a recursive schema. The
result of this serialization can then be integrated into the Arrow record as a
binary type column, effectively halting the recursion at a specific level. To
fully leverage the advantages of columnar representation, it is crucial to
apply this ad-hoc serialization as deeply within the data structure as
feasible. In the context of OpenTelemetry, this is performed at the attribute
level – more specifically, at the second level of attributes.
+
+A variety of serialization formats, such as protobuf or CBOR, can be employed
to encode recursive data. Without particular treatment, these binary columns
may not be easily queryable by the existing Arrow query engines. Therefore,
it's crucial to thoughtfully ascertain when and where to apply such a
technique. While I'm not aware of any attempts to address this limitation
within the Arrow system, it doesn't seem insurmountable and would constitute a
valuable extension. This would help reduce the complexity of integrating Arrow
with other systems that rely on such recursive definitions.
+
+## Importance of sorting
+
+In our preceding
[article](https://arrow.apache.org/blog/2023/04/11/our-journey-at-f5-with-apache-arrow-part-1/),
we explored a variety of strategies to represent hierarchical data models,
including nested structures based on struct/list/map/union, denormalization and
flattening representations, as well as a multi-record approach. Each method
presents its unique advantages and disadvantages. However, in this last
section, we'll delve deeper into the multi-record approach, focusing
specifically on its ability to offer versatile sorting options and how these
options contribute to an enhanced compression ratio.
+
+In the OTel Arrow protocol, we leverage the multi-record approach to represent
metrics, logs, and traces. The following entity-relationship diagram offers a
simplified version of various record schemas and illustrates their
relationships, specifically those used to represent gauges and sums. A
comprehensive description of the Arrow data model employed in OpenTelemetry can
be accessed
[here](https://github.com/f5/otel-arrow-adapter/blob/main/docs/data_model.md).
+
+These Arrow records, also referred to as tables, form a hierarchy with
`METRICS` acting as the primary entry point. Each table can be independently
sorted according to one or more columns. This sorting strategy facilitates the
grouping of duplicated data, thereby improving the compression ratio.
+
+<figure style="text-align: center;">
+ <img src="{{ site.baseurl
}}/img/journey-apache-arrow/metric-dp-data-model.png" width="100%"
class="img-responsive" alt="Fig 4: A simplified entity-relationship diagram
representing OTel sum & gauge metrics.">
+ <figcaption>Fig 4: A simplified entity-relationship diagram representing
OTel sum & gauge metrics.</figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+The relationship between the primary `METRICS` table and the secondary
`RESOURCE_ATTRS`, `SCOPE_ATTRS`, and `NUMBER_DATA_POINTS` tables is established
through a unique `id` in the main table and a `parent_id` column in each of the
secondary tables. This {id,parent_id} pair represents an overhead that should
be minimized to the greatest extent possible post-compression.
+
+To achieve this, the ordering process for the different tables adheres to the
hierarchy, starting from the main table down to the leaf. The main table is
sorted (by one or multiple columns), and then an incremental id is assigned to
each row. This numerical id is stored using delta-encoding, which is
implemented on top of Arrow.
+
+The secondary tables directly connected to the main table are sorted using the
same principle, but the `parent_id` column is consistently utilized as the last
column in the sort statement. Including the `parent_id` column in the sort
statement enables the use of a variation of delta encoding. The efficiency of
this approach is summarized in the chart below.
+
+<figure style="text-align: center;">
+ <img src="{{ site.baseurl
}}/img/journey-apache-arrow/compressed-message-size.png" width="100%"
class="img-responsive" alt="Fig 5: Comparative analysis of compression ratios -
OTLP Protocol vs. Two variations of the OTel Arrow Protocol with multivariate
metrics stream. (lower percentage is better)">
+ <figcaption>Fig 5: Comparative analysis of compression ratios - OTLP
Protocol vs. Two variations of the OTel Arrow Protocol with multivariate
metrics stream. (lower percentage is better)</figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+The second column presents the average size of the OTLP batch both pre- and
post-ZSTD compression for batches of varying sizes. This column serves as a
reference point for the ensuing two columns. The third column displays results
for the OTel Arrow protocol without any sorting applied, while the final column
showcases results for the OTel Arrow protocol with sorting enabled.
+
+Before compression, the average batch sizes for the two OTel Arrow
configurations are predictably similar. However, post-compression, the benefits
of sorting each individual table on the compression ratio become immediately
apparent. Without sorting, the OTel Arrow protocol exhibits a compression ratio
that's 1.40 to 1.67 times better than the reference. When sorting is enabled,
the OTel Arrow protocol outperforms the reference by a factor ranging from 4.94
to 7.21 times!
+
+The gains in terms of compression obviously depend on your data and the
redundancy of information present in your data batches. According to our
observations, the choice of a good sort generally improves the compression
ratio by a factor of 1.5 to 8.
+
+Decomposing a complex schema into multiple simpler schemas to enhance sorting
capabilities, coupled with a targeted approach to efficiently encode the
identifiers representing the relationships, emerges as an effective strategy
for enhancing overall data compression. This method also eliminates complex
Arrow data types, such as lists, maps, and unions. Consequently, it not only
improves but also simplifies data query-ability. This simplification proves
beneficial for existing query engines, which may struggle to operate on
intricate schemas.
+
+## Conclusion and next steps
+
+This article concludes our two-part series on Apache Arrow, wherein we have
explored various strategies to maximize the utility of Apache Arrow within
specific contexts. The adaptive schema architecture presented in the second
part of this series paves the way for future optimization possibilities. We
look forward to seeing what the community can add based on this contribution.
+
+Apache Arrow is an exceptional project, continually enhanced by a thriving
ecosystem. However, throughout our exploration, we have noticed certain gaps or
points of friction that, if addressed, could significantly enrich the overall
experience.
+* Designing an efficient Arrow schema can, in some cases, prove to be a
challenging task. Having the **ability to collect statistics** at the record
level could facilitate this design phase (data distribution per field,
dictionary stats, Arrow array sizes before/after compression, and so on). These
statistics would also assist in identifying the most effective columns on which
to base the record sorting.
+* **Native support for recursive schemas** would also increase adoption by
simplifying the use of Arrow in complex scenarios. While I'm not aware of any
attempts to address this limitation within the Arrow system, it doesn't seem
insurmountable and would constitute a valuable extension. This would help
reduce the complexity of integrating Arrow with other systems that rely on such
recursive definitions.
+* **Harmonizing the support for data types as well as IPC stream
capabilities** would also be a major benefit. Predominant client libraries
support nested and hierarchical schemas, but their use is limited due to a lack
of full support across the rest of the ecosystem. For example, list and/or
union types are not well supported by query engines or Parquet bridges. Also,
the advanced dictionary support within IPC streams is not consistent across
different implementations.
Review Comment:
> . Also, the advanced dictionary support within IPC streams is not
consistent across different implementations.
What specific features do you mean by "advanced" dictionary support? I would
like to make sure we are at least tracking the gaps in the Rust implementation
(and others, if needed)
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