-Caveat Lector- from: http://members.tripod.com/~american_almanac/prometh3.htm <A HREF="http://members.tripod.com/~american_almanac/prometh3.htm">American Prometheus -- The American System</A> --[3b]-- ------------------------------------------------------------------------ The Light of the World? Thomas Edison was moving heaven and earth, around the clock, to prepare the New York installation of the world's first electric power system. But on election night, in November, 1880, Edison arranged for a brilliant demonstration of the lights surrounding his Menlo Park laboratory, to celebrate the victory of James A. Garfield for President. Garfield took office in March of 1881, with his chosen Secretary of State James G. Blaine. Abraham Lincoln had been murdered 16 years before, and the friends of Lincoln's nationalist program had struggled to keep the country going forward. Now, particularly with Blaine in Washington, the Americans were once again in the driver's seat in their own country. Europe, and Ibero-America, were tense with expectation. James Blaine (1830-1893) was born and bred a Pennsylvania Whig. His great-grandfather, Col. Ephraim Blaine, was Commissary General for the Continental Army in Pennsylvania, and fought the cheapskates, thieves and traitors to sustain General Washington's starving army at Valley Forge. James Blaine's father lived in Western Pennsylvania as a merchant from 1817 on. The family profited from the development of coal lands in the Pittsburgh area. James' mother's sister was married to Thomas Ewing, the renowned Whig Party leader over in Lancaster, Ohio; it was in this Ewing family that young James lived for two years, from 1841 to 1843, spent many other visiting months, and from which he derived his political identity. As a U.S. Senator in 1836, Thomas Ewing got his stepson, William Tecumseh Sherman, into the U.S. Military Academy at West Point; James and the other children called the future general, "Gump." Blaine's Uncle Thomas Ewing was the Treasury Secretary for President William Henry Harrison in 1841, and was prepared to reinstitute the Bank of the United States when Harrison died mysteriously after a month in office. He was Secretary of the Interior under President Zachary Taylor beginning in 1849, but left when Taylor, likewise, died of a mysterious stomach ailment in 1850. The embattled nationalist politics and tradition of Henry Clay of Kentucky were the daily preoccupations of the Ewing and Blaine households, as they were with Clay's follower Abraham Lincoln in Illinois. Blaine went to college in Kentucky, then moved to Maine. There as a journalist and congressman he fervently supported the war for the Union, while President Lincoln revived and expanded the nationalist policies of the too-soon-dead Harrison and Taylor. Lincoln's outright murder in 1865 profoundly shocked James Blaine, hardening his anti-British resolve. >From 1869 to 1876, during the two terms of President Grant, Blaine was Speaker of the U.S. House of Represenatives. By the 1870's Blaine was the main political representative of his fellow Pennsylvania pro-industrial republicans. He was the close friend of steelmaker Andr�w Carnegie; of banker Jay Cooke; of Henry Carey's sidekick, ironmaster Joseph Wharton; and of Tom Scott, Union military railroad organizer and Pennsylvania R.R. executive. They all helped sponsor Blaine's career against the constant howlings of the London, Boston and New York financial communities. Secretary of State Blaine, recongized as the national leader of the Lincoln Republicans, functioned as the de facto Prime Minister for President James Garfield. Blaine's political program was simple: The U.S. government would promote the development of industry and new technology; in the United States, by high tariffs and subsidies to American shipping; and throughout the Americas, by the construction of North-South railroads, the interoceanic canal, reciprocal trade agreements, and the protection of the hemisphere from imperialist Europe. The entire hemisphere, from the U.S.A. down to the southern tip of South America, was all at once a theatre of battle, between the American industrial system and the plantation, or colonial system, as the American Civil War had been. President Rafael Nunez of Colombia was denounced as "half a Yankee" by his opponents. Certainly the canal Ferdinand de Lesseps was building through Colombia's Panama state would benefit the Yankees, in particular their navy. And the U.S. did play a great role in the construction effort -- all the mechanics were Americans, and most of the laboreres were English-speaking blacks, from Jamaica and from the U.S. But with the world commerce that should soon throng to Colombia, Dr. Nunez planned to make his country an industrial power. The government must build railroads to unify the traditionally isolated mock-sovereign states of the Columbian federation. He had already created a national bank on the model of Hamilton and Colbert. Tariffs and trade alliances with neighboring countries would be used as weapons to develop native industry. The canal construction crews arrived in 1881 under the watchful eye of the British consul in Panama, Claude Coventry Mallet -- of that marvelous clan of British-Swiss master spies who created Aaron Burr, the Scottish Rite and other anti-Hispanic adventurers. The British oligarchs and their friends struck Colombia with fury over the next several years. Financial sabotage by the international bankers magnifified the Canal Company's difficulties with malaria and yellow fever. Colombia's Liberal Party directed an insurrection against President Nunez, led by Free Trade advocates such as the Samper family -- still politically prominent today in the person of narcotics banker Samper Pisano. They invoked the "states rights" doctrine that Nunez had heard from the slaveocracy in the U.S.A., and they likewise threw Colombia into civil war. During 1885 terrorist mobs, under the thin cover of "anti-centralism", attacked and burned canal construction centers. President Nunez had allied his faction to the Conservative Party to fight the war. By his bitter victory, Nunez was able to proclaim a unified nation, the Republic of Colombia, under a new constitution which has lasted exactly 100 years to the present time. But the French-led canal effort was crippled. At the 1886 ceremonies dedicating the Statue of Liberty, a gift from the French to the American people, Ferdinand de Lesseps reminded his audience that his father had made the first commercial treaty between the two allies more than a half century before. But there was "nobody home" in Washington, no one who could respond to a plea for aid in the failing republican project. The United States had already effectively lost control of its government -- it had been shot away, in combat in Peru. ------------------------------------------------------------------------ America's War of the Pacific There was one rail system in the world higher than William Palmer's Denver & Rio Grande. It traversed the mountain spine of the hemisphere about 3,500 miles southeast of Colorado, in the Peruvian Andes. Engineer Henry Meigs had come down from California to build the breathtaking lines for the Peruvian government in the 1860's and 1870's; the Central railroad crossed the Andes at 15,865 feet. The great industrial potential of the region was thus just beginning to be developed, when Peru and Bolivia were invaded by the armed forces of Chile, a client state of Great Britain. The ostensible purpose of the Chileans and their British backers in this War of the Pacific was to grab the southern provinces of Peru, and Bolivia's narrow corridor to the sea. This land was rich in nitrate and guano deposits valuable for fertilizer. The war aims of the invaders, however, soon emerged as nothing less than the destruction of the Peruvian nationality. Like Colombia, and like the ill-fated Paraguayans back in the 1860's, Peru had dared to aim for national industrial development -- with help from those meddlesome Americans. When the Garfield-Blaine administration started in 1881, Peru had been utterly defeated. Chilean troops occupied the entire coast and had taken Lima in January. The British-led foreign diplomatic community -- including the U.S. ambassador, Isaac Christiancy -- clamored for Peruvians to accept the inevitable, that they should cede their nitrate provinces, and agree to whatever terms the conquerors imposed. The British recognized a self-appointed dictator named Pierola as a Peruvian head of state, but no constitutional government. The Peruvian army had disintegrated, which may have had as much to do with treason as with the respective military abilities of the Peruvians and the Chileans. The false-flag W.R. Grace company had served as chief supplier and military advisor to the Peruvian government, while a "pacifist" party in Peru had demobilized and demoralized the country. With hindsight and the resources of history we are in perhaps a better position today, than were the Peruvians a century ago, to know the precise identity of the W.R. Grace and Company. The Grace family published a lavishly decorated book [5] in 1911, to honor their own wealth and noble lineage. They claim descent from important females going back to 600 A.D. [sic], and importent males back to 1000 A.D. The family had long served the British as overlords, of the Catholic persuasion, over a section of the peasant population of Ireland. Along came Oliver Cromwell's 1640's revolt against the British crown, and the Grace's estate was taken from them. Some of the menfolk who had fought "the damned republicans" went wandering in Continental Europe, aiding the Catholic Hapsburgs and the exiled Stuart family with newly learned arts of intrigue and cultish underground organization. With the Restoration the Graces were back in clover, but only temporarily. The "Glorious Revolution" of 1688 put Catholics in disfavor. Still threatened with dispossession, the head of the Grace family sought help from his cousin, the Duke of Buckingham. "See here, old chap, there are Catholics...and there are Catholics..." The Duke understood just what Grace meant, and went to plead his case in the House of Lords. This left his visiting cousin alone in Buckingham Palace (this was before it was bought as a residence by King George III) with the Duke's young daughter, who was promptly impregnated. When the Duke discovered the facts, he evicted Grace and dropped his case. In this frankly humiliating fashion, the Grace family lost some 38,000 acres of choice Irish land and any reputation in Polite British Society. They were forced to readopt the mercenary ways of exile. Indeed, they made a growing fortune as attornies, as landless merchants, and as secret intelligence agents. But their family tradition nourished a hatred against the republican rabble and others who had wronged them, and a burning ambition to recover the noble, ordered world of the past. William Russell Grace (1832-1904) arrived in Peru with his father, James, in 1851. They brought along 200 Irish servants to work sugar fields. William and his brother Michael used family contacts to develop Grace Brothers & Company into the major British trading firm in western South America. They controlled virtually all shipping on the Pacific Coast, and in coordination with bankers in Lima, Santiago and London, they were the pivot on which rested British political power in the region. In 1865, after the Americans fought their way back from the British-supplied Southern Rebellion, William Grace established a residence in New York City. He organized W.R. Grace & Co. as a branch of his family's British firm in Peru and London. In 1879 his allies John M. Forbes and the Morgan-Rothschild banking syndicate forced Specie Resumption on the Americans, to squeeze off their credit. Then in 1880, without displaying even a hint of embarrassment, William R. Grace ran for Mayor of New York. Some troublemakers brought up a potential conflict in that "the pirate of Peru" did not appear to be an American citizen. [6] But Grace was in fact elected mayor when Garfield was elected President! It was into this badly deteriorated situation that Secretary of State James Blaine resolved to intervene with American power. He sent, as minister to Peru, a man in whom he reposed absolute trust. Stephen Augustus Hurlbut had been a political fellow warrior by the side of Abraham Lincoln in Illinois from at least the time of the state Whig convention of 1847. Hurlbut had fought valiantly as a Union general throughout the Civil War[7]. He had served as the first national president of the Grand Army of the Republic, the Union veterans organization, as Grant's ambassador to Colombia, and as a Republican congressman. Stephen Hurlbut, in short, was not a professional diplomat, and cared little about the opinions of enemies of his country. When, in early May, 1881, Secretary Blaine designated Hurlbut to go to Peru, his intentions were obvious to his opponents. On May 23, 1881, Charles J. Guiteau sent a letter to President Garfield: "...Mr. Blaine is a wicked man, and you ought to demand his immediate resignation; otherwise you and the Republican party will come to grief." [8] Guiteau shot President Garfield in the Washington train station on July 2, 1881, 4 months after he had taken office. The President did not immediately die, however, and as he lingered, Stephen Hurlbut arrived at his post in Peru. What is known about Guiteau may be quickly summarized. [9] His father was a devotee of the famous communist cultist John Humphrey Noyes. In 1860, instead of going to college, Charles was sent to Niagara Falls, Canada, and was escorted into the commune run by Noyes in Oneida, New York. Here Guiteau was brainwashed for the entire duration of the Civil War, emerging in 1865. John Noyes was a sadist, the son of a Tory Federalist Congressman from New Hampshire who sided with the British during the War of 1812; the Noyes fmaily were notorious in Massachusetts during the Revolution as British loyalists, resentful enemies of American independence. The commune in which Charles Guiteau was destroyed was run on the following lines. All wives were common sexual property, and all sex acts were the subject of official community "criticism" sessions in which each individual was in turn ripped up by his shared mate. John Noyes personally sexually initiated the children of the commune's inmates. Murder was perhaps not a spectacular crime to Oneida graduates, since at their seances they learned that people do not really die after all.[10] Guiteau's mindbenders were one group among a number of similar operations superintended by Laurence Oliphant, a top British intelligence officer who came to reside on another cult commune in upstate New York toward the end of the Civil War. Coming from service in insurrections throughout urope, and a stint as subcommander of the 2nd Opium War against China, Oliphant had responsibility for recruiting those likely to aid in the "reform of America's corrupt political life;" one of his more famous recruits had been the cynical historian Henry Adams, back in London. Oliphant conducted his seances, worked with the Western Union organization, and established a vast array of American political and commercial contacts, while Charles Guiteau wandered about, brainless, in the criminal subculture, doing as his "inspiration" directed. Guiteaus's inspiration to murder the president, he told the court, came to him on May 18, 1881. ------------------------------------------------------------------------ America and Peru, vs. the Bankers Upon arriving in Lima, Stephen Hurlbut[11] announced that the United States of America recognized Garcia Calderon as the constitutional president of Peru. He wrote back to Blaine that he would not be following the "questionable habit" of his predecessor, "of calling together the diplomatic corps, and taking counsel on almost all questions, which practically emascualted the United States." The British, in particular, were howling that Hurlbut was "breaking ranks" by recognizing a government that they didn't recognize. Hurlbut immediately set about strengthening national resistance to the invasion, and support for Calderon, who had been chosen by the underground Peruvian nationalist leadership. Soon after his arrival, Hurlbut sent a memorandum to the Chilean commander, Admiral Lynch, stating that the U.S. would not look kindly upon the breaking up of Peruvian territory. Lynch immediately took this memo to the British and French ambassadors, and two hours later the ambassadors went to see President Calderon -- whose government they had not recognized. They told Calderon that, using their good offices, the Chileans might be persuaded to withdraw, without demanding the cession of territory. Hurlbut had in fact given a copy of the memorandum to President Calderon as well as to the Chilean commander, so Calderon was able to see the sequence of events and to laugh at the British, who until the Americans butted in had insisted that Peru must surrender its territory. President Garfield died on Sept. 19, 1881. Hurlbut wrote back to Blaine for instructions. Blaine said only that Hurlbut should persist in the recognition of Calderon. Hurlbut persisted. Enraged Chileans reported that Hurlbut used the U.S.S. "Alaska" to land a brother of President Calderon in Mollendo, with money and instructions for Peruvian resistance fighters. [12] He criticized and counteracted the unwholesome situation in the U.S. legation in Chile: the American ambassador there, Judson Kilpatrick, was mortally ill, and his wife, the daughter of a Chilean government official, represented "American" policy on behalf of the Chileans and British. The Chilean military, meanwhile, arrested Peruvian President Calderon and took him away to Santiago. On November 29, 1881, Secretary Blaine, still in office, called for a peace conference of all republics in the Western Hemisphere, to convene in Washington one year later. This was the last important exposition of the Monroe Doctrine, representing the thinking of both murdered American presidents with whom Blaine had been associated. ------------------------------------------------------------------------ > Face to Face Ambassador Hurlbut had discussed with the Peruvians the establishment of a coaling station at Chimbote for American naval vessels. He wrote to Blaine on Dec. 7, 1881: "Sir Spencer St. John the English Minister is behaving very singularly and indecorously in these affairs. He learned the other day in a very vague form, something about the Chimbote Protocol, and has proceeded to the singular length of writing out the points of a 'Secret Treaty' between the United States and Peru, which he is exhibiting in clubs and other public places and which he induces people to believe is genuine. "In the same spirit he has induced the Chilean authorities to believe or to affect to believe that a 'Secret Treaty' of vast importance has in fact been executed, giving in ownership to the United States the entire bay of Chimbote, and some square miles of territory, and the Rail Road with exclusive civil and military jurisdiction and power to erect fortifications, besides many other exclusive privileges." Hurlbut wrote to Blaine on Dec. 11, 1881: "In my last [dispatch] I mentioned the extraordinary conduct of Sir Spencer St. John the British Minister. I have learned since that time that the Chilian government has acted upon this information, and that they have telegraphed to their several Diplomatic agents in America and europe in accordance with the false and exaggerated information furnished them from that source. I am also informed, though I scarcely believe it, that the English, French and Italian ministers here, have given like information to their respective governments. The purpose of these communications is to give color to the idea of annexation or at least protectorate [i.e. over Peru] on the part of the United States. "Stimulated undoubtedly by this same information, the Chilian Military authorities of this city made a domiciliary visit to the house of Mr. Calderon, occupied by his wife and family, and instituted a severe but ineffectual search for the alleged Treaty. They arrested Mr. Velarde, one of Calderon's late ministers, and demanded a literal copy. Mr. Velarde stated that he had no such document in his possession. They then pressed him to ask for a copy from me.... "Having made up my mind that all this came from the indiscreet and indecent action of Sir Spencer St. John, I addressed him an official note...dated 9 Dec. 1881. This note was sent to him at 8:30 A.M. [Dec. 10] and at 10:30 A.M. he came to my house, and we had the interview, a statement of which I enclose....It is apparent that his sole object was, to make mischief and create an ill feeling throughout America and in Europe against the United States." The note to St. John read, "I have been informed by several gentlemen of good standing that for some time past, you have exhibited in places of public resort a supposed version of an assumed treaty between Peru and the United States....I request you to admit the representative of the United States into the confidence, you have so liberally bestowed upon the public, and to furnish me a copy of the version alluded to...." Describing the visit of the British ambassador: "Mr. St. John came to my house and stated. That he had just received my letter. That he had shown to several persons a draft of a supposed treaty, which he himself had noted down, consisting of six articles. That he had done it as a joke to show the credulity of the Peruvians by embodying in form the rumors currently on the streets. That it was never intended to be serious, and that he had so informed every one to whom he had shown it. That the propositions were so absurd that he never sup posed any one would believe them. That he had destroyed the paper and consequently could not give me a copy." On Dec. 12, 1881, James Blaine was fired as U.S. Secretary of State. His replacement, Frederick Frelinghuysen, immediately cancelled the proposed hemispheric peace conference, to which many nations had already enthusiatically responded, on the grounds that it would invite "European jealousy and ill will"! Blaine later wrote an open letter to President Arthur: "If that movement [for a hemishperic peace congress] is now to be arrested for fear it may give offence in Europe, the voluntary humiliation of the United States could not be more complete, unless we should petition European Governments for the privilege of holding the Congress."[13] Representative Perry Belmont arranged for a special Congressional investigation, chaired by himself, to investigate the supposed corruption of James Blaine and Stephen Hurlbut. He said he had been slipped revealing information to this effect by the Peruvian ambassador to Washington. Congressman Belmont's father, banker August Belmont, reflected the British "joke" about America trying to rob Peru, and remarked with relief: "the country might have been plunged into a war with Peru if poor Garfield had not been assassinated. Blaine is about the most unscrupulous politician we ever had since Aaron Burr." [14] August Belmont was the official American representative of the Rothschilds, and had been the consul general of the Hapsburgs in America. His son Perry was the law partner of George Frelinghuysen, the son of the new Secretary of State. Without blushing, they had their law office in August Belmont's bank building. Stephen Hurlbut was supposed to testify at Congressman Belmont's hearing, which might have blown out some circuits. But a letter arrived in Washington from U.S. Naval personnel in the U.S. legation in Lima, dated March 28th, 1882: "A Post-Mortem has this day been held upon the remains of Stephen A. Hurlbut, Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary of the United States of America in Peru....[The] slight organic lesions, the only ones found, do not of themselves prove the cause of death; but in connection with the symptoms which preceded death...satisfy us that Stephen A. Hurlbut, died suddenly at the American Legation, Lima, Peru, on March 27th 1882, and that the cause of death was Angina pectoris." Former Secretary of State James Blaine testified at Belmont's Congressional hearing: "The Chilian Government has put up by advertisement 1,000,000 tons of guano, which I suppose is worth $60,000,000 in Liverpool and they pledge themselves in the advertisement to pay one-half of it into the Bank of England for the benefit of the English bondholders who put up the job of this war on Peru. It was a put-up job; that is all there was to it; it was loot and booty. It had not as much excuse in this as Hastings and Clive had in India, and England sweeps it all in....The iron-clads that destroyed the Peruvian navy were furnished by England....It is a perfect mistake to speak of this as a Chilian war on Peru. It is an English war on Peru, with Chili as the instrument, and I take the responsibility of that assertion. Chili would never have gone into this war one inch but for her backing by English capital, and there was never anything played out so boldly in the world as when they came to divide the loot and the spoils."[15] James Blaine was the Republican nominee for President in 1884. New York Mayor W.R. Grace organized the support of the financial community for Blaine's successful opponent, Grover Cleveland. Young Theodore Roosevelt followed the advice of Henry Cabot Lodge and stayed a Republican, so he could help defeat Blaine from within the Party. The broken government of Peru signed the Grace-Donoughmore Contract in 1890. English bondholders, legally represented by former New York Mayor W.R. Grace, secured a mortgage on the nation of Peru. In exchange for their bonds, they "received outright the silver mines of Cerro de Pasco; the entire output of the guano deposits; five million acres of land containing valuable oil and mineral deposits; as well as the lease of two railways for sixty six years..." [16] No more railroads were ever built in Peru. The southern provinces were annexed by Chile. Peru has remained in poverty, hostage to W.R. Grace and Co. and allied banking interests. Vice President Theodore Roosevelt became President of the United States upon the assassination of William McKinley in 1901, six months after McKinley and Roosevelt were elected. He reversed all the policies of American republican leaders going back to George Washington. He made war on Ibero America, and closed the American West to further settlement. Rafael Nunez of Colombia had learned from Abraham Lincoln's battle for the Union, that his nation must be unified for survival. President Teddy Roosevelt, whose family had helped lead the slaveowners' rebellion against the United States, hired a pretend insurrection, for the secession of Colombia's Panama State. His "Corollary to the Monroe Doctrine" spit on the graves of Blaine, and Hurlbut, and Lincoln, and the Americans who died for freedom in the Civil War; T.R. declared that the U.S.A. would enforce debt collections for international bankers, including Grace and his bank -- now known as Citibank. In response to Peruvian President Alan Garcia's defiance of the International Monetary Fund, the Washington Post of August 21, 1986, editorialized that: "Peru's current economic decline is a case of bad luck compounded by bad management....The present foreign debt crisis is Peru's eighth since the early 19th century." On the same page, they reproduce a message from the State Department: "Because many Latin Americans have an emotional need to cast stones at foreigners, the myth of imperialist exploitation has grown over the years to extraordinary proportions. Powerful foreigners are thought to be tirelessly scheming to impoverish and subjugate Latin America." For a long time the Post treated its readers to the campaign of William Russell Grace's grandson, current W.R. Grace President Peter Grace, to cure America's budget deficit with killer austerity. Grace was the "tirelessly scheming" author of the nightmare Gramm-Rudman law, which in today's economic crisis will blow up the U.S.A. like a hydrogen bomb if it is not reversed. Americans are ready to take back control of their own affairs from the Eastern Liberal Establishment, from Teddy Roosevelt's Trust. It is a nation worth fighting for. It is an idea of the freedom to develop, a global concept which may not in fact be realized until America is once again in American hands. ------------------------------------------------------------------------ Footnotes 1.Quoted in Nunez, Rafael, Ensayos Vol. 2: La Reforma Politica En Colombia, published by the Colombian Ministry of Education, 1944, p. xii-xv. 2.This letter is in the microfilmed file of the U.S. legation in Mexico, in the Archives of the United States, Washington, D.C. 3.The account provided here of the Colorado railroad war is taken from Fisher, John S., A Builder of the West: The Life of General William Jackson Palmer, The Caxton Printers, Caldwell, Idaho, 1939; and from the Colorado Springs Gazette, commemorative editions from 1901 through 1909, and other newspapers, whose coverage of Palmer is contained in the Palmer Papers microfilm by the Colorado Historical Society which is on deposit in the Pennsylvania State Library, Harrisburg. 4.Palmer, writing from the President's Office of the Denver and Rio Grande Railroad, 216 S. 4th St., Philadelphia, to E. H. Johnson, March 8, 1878; in the Edison National Archives, West Orange, New Jersey. 5.The Family of Grace, London, K. Paul, Trench, Trubner, 1911, a copy of which is in the Library of Congress, Rare Book division. 6.See the New York Times, various editions in September and October, 1880. Grace said nothing on his citizenship, but the Times thought the matter was settled by the fact that Grace had briefly visited New York many years earlier, as a teenager. 7.We are reliably informed that Gen. Hurlbut had in his command, in the Sixteenth Corps, Army of the Tennessee, the loyal and efficient services of Private James Avery Benton, great-great-grandfather of Mr. Nicholas Benton, the current director of the Washington D.C. office of this newspaper. 8.From the printed copy in the Garfield papers, Library of Congress, excerpted in Peskin, Allan, Garfield, Kent State University Press, 1978, p. 591. 9.See United States of America vs. Charles J. Guiteau, 1881, Library of Congress. 10.Estlake, Allan The Oneida Community: A Record of an Attempt to Carry Out the Principles of Christian Unselfhishness and Scientific Race-Improvement, London, Geroge Redway, 1900. 11.See the correspondence from the American legation in Peru to the Secretary of State, August, 1881 to March, 1882, on microfilm in the Archinves of the United States. 12.The Valparaiso Times of December 24, 1881, reported in Millington, Herbert, American Diplomacy and the War of the Pacific, New York, Octagon Books, 1975, p. 93. 13.Quoted in Hamilton, Gail, Biography of James G. Blaine, The Henry Bill Publishing Co., Norwich, Conn., 1895, p. 521. This is the only decent biography of Blaine, written by his neice -- at whose Washington house Thomas A. Edison first demonstrated the phonograph to the assembled U.S. Congressmen. 14.Quoted in Black, David, The King of Fifth Avenue; The Fortunes of August Belmont, The Dial Press, New York, 1981, p. 645. 15.Sketch of William Russell Grace, Dictionary of American Biography, Charles Scribner's Sons, New York, 1931. The very same article declares that Grace "conducted a reform administration" as mayor of New York. ------------------------------------------------------------------------ Top of PageThe American SystemSite MapOverview Page ------------------------------------------------------------------------ The preceding article is a rough version of the article that appeared in The American Almanac. It is made available here with the permission of The New Federalist Newspaper. Any use of, or quotations from, this article must attribute them to The New Federalist, and The American Almanac. ----- Aloha, He'Ping, Om, Shalom, Salaam. Em Hotep, Peace Be, Omnia Bona Bonis, All My Relations. 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