Let us please be civil and as always, Caveat Lector. ======================================================================== Archives Available at:
http://www.mail-archive.com/[EMAIL PROTECTED]/ <A HREF="">ctrl</A> ======================================================================== To subscribe to Conspiracy Theory Research List[CTRL] send email: SUBSCRIBE CTRL [to:] [EMAIL PROTECTED]
To UNsubscribe to Conspiracy Theory Research List[CTRL] send email: SIGNOFF CTRL [to:] [EMAIL PROTECTED]
Om
--- Begin Message ----Caveat Lector- http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/B/BE/BEHEADING.htm LoveToKnow Free Online Encyclopedia This site and its contents are C 2002-2003 by LoveToKnowBEHEADING BEHEADING, a mode of executing capital punishment (q.v.). It was in use among the Greeks and Romans, and the former, as Xenophon says at the end of the second book of the Anabasis, regarded it as a most honorable form of death. So did the Romans, by whom it was known as decollatio or capitis ampulatio. The head was laid on a block placed in a pit dug for the purpose, in the case of a military offender, outside the intrcnchments, in civil cases outside the city walls, near the porta decuinatw. Before execution the criminal was tied to a stake and whipped with rods. In earlier years an axe was used; afterwards a sword, which was considered a more honorable instrument of death, and was used in the case of citizens (Dig. 48, 19, 28). It was with a sword that Ciceros head was struck off by a common soldier. The beheading of John the Baptist proves that the tetrarch Herod had adopted from his suzerain th~ Roman mode of execution. Suetonius (Calig. C. 32) states that Caligula kept a soldier, an artist in beheading, who in his presence decapitated prisoners fetched indiscriminately for that purpose from the gaols. Beheading is said to have been introduced into England from Normandy by William the Conqueror. The first person to suffer was Waltheof, earl of Northumberland, in 1076. An ancient MS. relating to the earls of Chester states that the serjeants or bailiffs of the earls had power to behead any malefactor or thief, and gives an account of the presenting of several heads of felons at the castle of Chester by the earls serjeant. It appears thatthe custom also attached to the barony of Malpas. In a roll of3 Edward II., beheading is called the custom of Cheshire(Lysons Cheshire, p. 299, from Harl. MS. 2009 fol. 34b). The liberty of Hardwick, in Yorkshire, was granted the privilegeof beheading thieves. (See GUILLOTINE.) But with the exceptions above stated beheading was usually reserved as the mode of executing offenders of high rank. Fromthe 15th century onward the victims of the axe include some ofthe highest personages in the kingdom: Archbishop Scrope(1405); duke of Buckingham (1483); Catherine Howard (1542); earl of Surrey (1547); duke of Somerset (1552); duke of Northumberland (553); Lady Jane Grey (1554); Lord Guildford Dudley (554); Mary queen of Scots (1587); earl of Essex(1601); Sir Walter Raleigh (1618); earl of Strafford (1641); Charles I. (1649); Lord William Russell (1683); duke of Monmouth (1685); earl of Derwentwater (1716); earl of Kenmure (1716); earl of Kilmarnock and Lord Balmerino(1746); and the list closes with Simon, Lord Lovat, who (9th of April 1747) was the last person ,beheaded in England. The execution of Anne Boleyn was carried out not with the axe,but with a sword, and by a French headsman specially broughtover from Calais. In 1644 Archbishop Laud was condemned to be hanged, and the only favor granted him, and that re-luctantly, was that his sentence should be changed to beheading. In the case of the 4th Earl Ferrers (1760) his petition to be beheaded was refused and he was hanged.Executions by beheading usually took place on Tower Hill,London, where the scaffold stood permanently during the I 5th and 16th centuries. In the case of certain state prisoners, e.g. Anne Boleyn and Lady Jane Grey, the sentence was carried out within the Tower on the green by St Peters chapel.Beheading was only a part of the common-law method ofpunishing male traitors, which was ferocious in the extreme.According to Walcots case (1696), 1 Eng. Rep. 89, the proper sentence was quod . . . ibidem super bigarn (herdillum) ponatur et abinde usque ad furcas de [Tyburn] trahatur, etibidem per collum suspendatur et vivus ad terram prosternaturet quod secreta membra ejus amputentur, et interiora sua intraventrem suum capiantur et in ignem ponantur et ibidem -ipso vivente comburantur, et quod caput ejus amputetur, quodque corpus ejus in quatuor partes dividatur et illo ponantur ubidominus rex eas assignare voluit. There is a tradition thatHarrison the regicide after being disembowelled rose and boxedthe ears of the executioner.In Townleys case (i8 Howell, Slate Trials, 350, 351) there is a ghastly account of the 1~iode of executing the sentence; and inthat case the executioner cut the traitors throat. In the caseof the Cato Street conspiracy(182o, 33 Howell, State Trials, 1566), after the traitors had been hanged as directed by the act of 1814, their heads were cut off by a man in a mask whose dexterity led to the belief that he was a surgeon.Female traitors were until 1790 liable to be drawn to execution and burnt alive. In. that year hanging was substituted forburning.In 1814 so much of the sentence as related to disembowelling and burning the bowels was abolished and the king was empoweredby royal warrant to substitute decapitation for hanging, whichwas made by that act the ordinary mode of executing traitors.But it was not till 1870 that the portions of the sentence as to drawing and quartering were abolished (Forfeiture Act 1870). The more barbarous features of the execution were remitted in the case of traitors of high rank, and the offender was simplydecapitated.The block usually employed is believed to have been a lowone such as would be used for beheading a corpse. C. H. Firthand S. R. Gardiner incline to the view that such a block was theoneused at Charles Is execution. The more general custom,however, seems to have been to have a high block over whichthe victim knelt. Such is the form of ihat preserved in thearmoury of the Tower of London. This is undoubtedly theblock upon which Lord Lovat auffered, but, in spite of severalaxe-cuts on it, probably not one in early use. The axe whichstands beside it was used to behead him and the other Jacobitelords, but no certainty exists as to its having been previouslyemployed. On the ground floor of the Kings House, at theTower, is preserved the processional axe which figured in thejourneys of state prisoners to and from their trials, the edgeturned from them as they went, but almost invariably turnedtowards them as they returned to the Tower. The axes headis peculiar in form, I ft. 8 in. high by 10 in. wide, and is fastened into a wooden handle 5 ft. 4 in. long. The handle is ornamented by four rows of burnished brass nails.In Scotland they did not behead with the axe, nor with thesword, as under the Roman law, and formerly in Holland andFrance, but with the maiden (q.z.).Capital punishment is executed by beheading in France, andin. Belgium by means of the guillotine.In Germany the instrument used varies in different states:in the old provinces of Prussia the axe, in Saxony and RhenishPrussia the guillotine. Until 1851 executions were public. They now take place within a prison in the presence of certainspecified officials.Beheading is also the mode of executing capital punishmentin Denmark and Sweden. The axe is used. In Sweden theexecution takes place on the order of the king within a prisonin the presence of certain specified officials and, if desired, oftwelve representatives of the commune within which the prisonis situate (Code 1864, S. 2, Royal Ordinance 1877). In the Chinese empire decapitation is the usual mode of execution. By an imperial edict (24th of April 1905) certain attendant barbarities have been suppressed: viz, slicing, cut- ting up the body, and exhibiting the head to public view (32 Clunet, 1175). BEHEMOTH (the intensive plural of the Hebrew bhemah, a beast), the animal mentioned in the book of Job (ch. xl. 15), probably the hippopotamus, which in ancient times was found in Egypt below the cataracts of Sycne. The word may be used inJob as typical of the primeval king of land animals, as leviathanof the water animals. The modern use expresses the idea of avery large and strong animal.BEHISTUN, or BI5ITIJN, now pronounced Bisutun, a little village at the foot of a precipitous rock, 1700 ft. high, in the centre of the Zagros range in Persia on the right bank of theSamas-Ab, the principal tributary of the Kerkha (Choaspes).The original form of the name, Bagistana, place of the gods or of God has been preserved by the Greek authors Stephanus of Byzantium and Diodorus (ii. I3)~ the latter of whom says that the place was sacred to Zeus, i.e. Ahuramazda (Ormuzd). At its foot passes the great road which leads from Babylonia(Bagdad) to the highlands of Media (Ecbatana, Hamadan). Onthe steep face of the rock, some 500 ft. above the plain, Darius I., king of Persia, had engraved a great cuneiform inscription(ii or 12 ft. high), which recounts the way in which, after the death of Cambyses, he killed the usurper Gaumata (in Justin Gometes, the pseudo-Smerdis), defeated the numerous rebels,and restored the kingdom of the Achaemenidae. Above theinscription the picture of the king himself is graven, with a bowin his hand, putting his left foot on the body of Gaumata. Ninerebel chiefs are led before him, their hands bound behind them,and a rope round their necks; the ninth is Skunka, the chief ofthe Scythians (Sacae) whom he defeated. Behind the king standhis bow-bearer and his lance-bearer; in the air appears thefigure of the great god Ahuramazda, whose protection led himto victory.i The inscriptions are composed in the three languageswhich are written with cuneiform signs, and were used in allDfficial inscriptions of the Achaernenian kings: the chief place1 A passage in the inscription runs: Thus saith Darius the king: That which I have done I have done altogether by the grace ef Ahuramazda. Ahnramazda, and the other gods that be, broughtaid to me. For this reason did Ahuramazda, and the other gods that he, bring aid to me, because I was not hostile, nor a liar, nor a wrongdoer, neither I nor my family, hut according to Rectitude (dritam) have I ruled. (A. V. \Villiams Jacksan, Pcrstu, lasi and Present,) without taking the monastic vows, should devote themselves to a life of religion. The effect of his preaching was immense, and large numbers of women, many of them left desolate by the loss of their husbands on crusade, came under the influence of a movement which was attended with all the manifestations of what is now called a revival. About the year 1180 Lambert gathered some of these women, who had been ironically styled Beguines by his opponents, into a semi-conventual community, which he established in a quarter of the city belonging to him around his church of St Christopher. The district was surrounded by a wall within which the Beguines lived in separate small houses, subject to no rule save the obligation 0-f good works, and of chastity so long as they remained members of the community. After Lamberts death (c. 1187?) the movement rapidly spread, first in the Netherlands and afterwards in France where it was encouraged by the saintly Louis IX.Germany, Switzerland and the countries beyond. Everywhere the coinmunity was modelled on the type established at Liege. It constituted a little city within the ,city, with separate houses, and usually a church, hospital and guest-house, the whole being under the government of a mistress (magisira). Women of all classes were admitted; and, though there was no rule of poverty, many wealthy women devoted their riches to the common cause. The Beguines did not beg; and, when the endowments of the community were not sufficient, the poorer members had to support themselves by manual work, sick-nursing and the like. The Beguine communities were fruitful soil for the missionary enterprise of the friars, and in the course of the i3th century the communities in France, Germany and upper Italy had fallen under the influence of the Dominicans and Franciscans to such an extent that in the Latin-speaking countries the tertiaries of these orders were commonly called beguini and beguinae. The very looseness of their organization, indeed, made it inevitable that the Beguine associations should follow very diverse developments. Some of them retained their original character; others fell completely under the dominion of the friars, and were ultimately converted into houses of Dominican, Franciscan or Augustinian tertiaries; others again fell under the influence of the mystic movements of the I3th century, turned in increasing numbers from work to mendicancy (as being nearer the Christ-life), practised the most cruel self-tortures, and lapsed into extravagant heresies that called down upon them the condemnation of popes and councils.i All this tended to lower the reputation of the Beguines. During the i4th century, indeed, numerous new beguinages were established; but ladies of rank and wealth ceased to enter them, and they tended to become more and mere mere almshouses for poor women. By the, I 5th century in niany cases they had utterly sunk in reputation, their obligation to nurse the sick was quite neglected, and they had, rightly or wrongly, acquired the reputation of being mere nests of beggars and women of ill fame. At the Reformation the communities were suppressed in Protestant countries, but in some Catholic countries they still survive. The beguinagcs found here and there in Germany are now simply almshouses for poor spinsters, those in Holland (e.g. at Amsterdam and Brcda) and Belgium preserve more faithfully the characteristics of earlier days. The beguinage of St Elizabeth at Ghent has some thousand sisters, and occupies quite a distinct quarter of the city, being surrounded by a wall and moat. The Beguines wear the old Flemish head-dress and a dark costume, and are conspicuous for their kindness among the poor and their sick nursing. It is uncertain whether the parallel communities of men originated also with Lambert le Bgue. The first records are of ~ommunities at Louvain in 1220 and at Antwerp in 1228. The history of the male communities is to a certain extent parallel with the female, but they were never so numerous and their degeneration was far more rapid. The earliest Flemish Beghard communities were associations mainly of artisans who earned their living by weaving and the like, and appear to have been in intimate connection with the craft-gilds; but under the influence of the mendicant movement of the 13th century these tended to break up, and, though certain of the mate beguinages survived or were incorporated as tertiaries in the orders of friars, the name of Beghard became associated with groups of wandering mendicants who made religion a cloak for living on charity; bguigner becoming in the French language of the time synonymous with to beg, and beghcird with beggar, a word which, according to the latest authorities, was probably imported into England in the i3th century from this source (see BEGGAR). More serious still, from the point of view of the Church, was the association of these wandering mendicants with the mystic heresies of the Fraticelli, the Apostolici and the pantheistic Brethren of the Free Spirit. The situation was embittered by the hatred of the secular clergy for the friars, with whom the Beguines were associated. Restrictions were placed upon them by the synod of Fritzlar (1269), by that of Mainz (1281) and Eichstatt (1281). and by the synod of Bziers (1299) they were absolutely forbidden. They were again condemned by a synod held at Cologne in 1306; and at the synod of Trier in 1310 a decree was passed against those who under a pretext of feigned religion call themselves Beghards . . - and, hating manual labor, go about begging, holding conventicles and posing among simple people as interpreters of the Scriptures Matters came to a climax at the council of \Tjenr,e in 1311 under Pope Clement V., where the sect of Beguines and Beghards were accused of being the main instruments of the spread of heresy, and decrees were passed suppressing their organization and dc manding their severe punishment. Tile decrees were put into execution by Pope John XXII., and a persecution raged in which, though the pope expressly protected the female Beguine communities of the Netherlands, there was little discrimination between the orthodox and unorthodox Beguines. This led to the utmost confusion, the laity in many cases taking the part of the Beguine com munities, and the Church being thus brought into conflict with the secular authorities. In these circumstances the persecution died down; it was, however, again resumed between 1366 and 1378 by Popes Urban V. and Gregory XL, afid the Beguines were not formally reinstated until the pontificate of Eugenius IV. (143 11447). The male communities did not survive the 14th century, even in the Netherlands, where they had maintained their original character least impaired. See j. L. von Moshein, Dc beghardis ci heguinabus co,nmentarius (l,eipzig, 1790); E. Ilallmann, Die Geschichte des Ursprungs der belgischen Beghinen (Berlin, 1843); J. C. L. Cieseler, Eccles. Hist. (vol. ui. Eng. trans., Edinburgh, i853), with useful excerpts from documents; Du Cange, Giossai-iunz; Herzog-Hauck, Realencyklopadie (3rd ed., 1897) s. Beginen, by Herman Haupt, where numerous further authorities are cited. (W. A. P.) ------------------------ Yahoo! Groups Sponsor ---------------------~--> Make a clean sweep of pop-up ads. Yahoo! Companion Toolbar. Now with Pop-Up Blocker. Get it for free! http://us.click.yahoo.com/L5YrjA/eSIIAA/yQLSAA/TySplB/TM ---------------------------------------------------------------------~-> -__ ___ _ ___ __ ___ _ _ _ __ /-_|-0-\-V-/-\|-|-__|-|-|-/-_| \_-\--_/\-/|-\\-|-_||-V-V-\_-\ |__/_|--//-|_|\_|___|\_A_/|__/ SPY NEWS is OSINT newsletter and discussion list associated to Mario's Cyberspace Station - The Global Intelligence News Portal http://mprofaca.cro.net ######## CAUTION! ######### Since you are receiving and reading documents, news stories, comments and opinions not only from so called (or self-proclaimed) "reliable sources", but also a lot of possible misinformation collected by Spy News moderator and subscribers and posted to Spy News for OSINT purposes - it should be a serious reason (particularly to journalists and web publishers) to think twice before using it for their story writing, further publishing or forwarding throughout Cyberspace. To unsubscribe: mailto:[EMAIL PROTECTED] *** FAIR USE NOTICE: This message contains copyrighted material whose use has not been specifically authorized by the copyright owner. Spy News is making it available without profit to SPY NEWS eGroup members who have expressed a prior interest in receiving the included information in their efforts to advance the understanding of intelligence and law enforcement organizations, their activities, methods, techniques, human rights, civil liberties, social justice and other intelligence related issues, for non-profit research and educational purposes only. We believe that this constitutes a 'fair use' of the copyrighted material as provided for in section 107 of the U.S. Copyright Law. If you wish to use this copyrighted material for purposes of your own that go beyond 'fair use,' you must obtain permission from the copyright owner. For more information go to: http://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/17/107.shtml ----------------------------------------------- SPY NEWS home page: http://groups.yahoo.com/group/spynews Mario Profaca http://mprofaca.cro.net/ Yahoo! Groups Links <*> To visit your group on the web, go to: http://groups.yahoo.com/group/spynews/ <*> To unsubscribe from this group, send an email to: [EMAIL PROTECTED] <*> Your use of Yahoo! Groups is subject to: http://docs.yahoo.com/info/terms/ www.ctrl.org DECLARATION & DISCLAIMER ========== CTRL is a discussion & informational exchange list. Proselytizing propagandic screeds are unwelcomed. Substanceâ??not soap-boxingâ??please! These are sordid matters and 'conspiracy theory'â??with its many half-truths, mis- directions and outright fraudsâ??is used politically by different groups with major and minor effects spread throughout the spectrum of time and thought. That being said, CTRLgives no endorsement to the validity of posts, and always suggests to readers; be wary of what you read. CTRL gives no credence to Holocaust denial and nazi's need not apply. Let us please be civil and as always, Caveat Lector. ======================================================================== Archives Available at: http://www.mail-archive.com/[EMAIL PROTECTED]/ <A HREF="http://www.mail-archive.com/[EMAIL PROTECTED]/">ctrl</A> ======================================================================== To subscribe to Conspiracy Theory Research List[CTRL] send email: SUBSCRIBE CTRL [to:] [EMAIL PROTECTED] To UNsubscribe to Conspiracy Theory Research List[CTRL] send email: SIGNOFF CTRL [to:] [EMAIL PROTECTED] Om
--- End Message ---
