-Caveat Lector-
an excerpt from:
The Great Heroin Coup - Drugs, Intelligence, & International Fascism
Henrik Kruger
Jerry Meldon, Translator
South End Press©1980
Box 68 Astor Station
Boston, MA 02123
ISBN 0-89608-0319-5
240pps - one edition - out-of-print
Orginally published in Danish
Smukke Serge og Heroien
Bogan 1976
--[14]--
FOURTEEN
HEROIN IN SOUTHEAST ASIA
The place was Kunming in the South China province of Yunnan. The time was the
end of World War II. Amid the chaos of war, opium and gold became the primary
media of exchange, and cult-like bonds were forged among a small staff of
Americans and high-ranking Chinese. Yunnan was a center of Chinese opium
cultivation and Kunming was the hotbed of military operations, among them
Claire Chennault's 14th Air Force and Detachment 202 of the Office of
Strategic Services (OSS).
Among Detachment 202's notorious collection of special agents, one in
particular—E. Howard Hunt-has needed no introduction since the Watergate
break-in. In Kunming, the spy novelist who later became a comrade of Cuban
exiles and China Lobbyists befriended an equally intriguing character, the
French Foreign Legionnaire turned OSS agent, Captain Lucien Conein.[1]
Although not part of Detachment 202 proper, Conein frequented Kunming while
awaiting parachuting over Indochina.[2]
Indochina remained Conein's base of operation after World War II, when, like
Hunt, he slid over from the OSS to its successor, the CIA. He then operated
throughout South and North Vietnam, Cambodia, and Burma, and became the top
U.S. expert on the area-as well as on the opium-smuggling Corsican Mafia. He
was Ambassador Henry Cabot Lodge's middle man in the 1963 plot to overthrow
South Vietnam's President Ngo Dinh Diem (who was assassinated along with his
brother Ngo Dinh Nhu, the Corsicans' partner in the drug traffic). A decade
later, Conein and Hunt, working for the Nixon White House Plumbers, would
attempt to make it appear that the plot had been ordered by JFK. Both Conein
and William Colby, mastermind of the CIA's Phoenix assassination program,
were recalled to the U.S. at the start of the seventies.
After Mao Tse-tung's rise to power in China, OSS veterans formed a number of
firms that would be linked both to the CIA and to its reactionary client
regimes in the Far East. With financial assistance from his friends in Asia,
OSS China hand C.V. Starr gained control of several U.S. insurance companies.
As brought to light during the McClellan hearings, Jimmy Hoffa awarded one of
them, U.S. Life, and a smaller company, Union Casualty-whose agents Paul and
Allen Dorfman were among Hoffa's links to the underworld[3]—a Teamsters Union
contract despite a lower bid from a larger, more reputable insurance firm.[4]
Starr's attorney was the powerful Washington-based Tommy "The Cork" Corcoran.
Corcoran's law partner, William Youngman, was a director of U.S. Life.
Corcoran's other clients included the United Fruit Company, Chiang Kai-shek's
influential brother-in-law T.V. Soong, and the mysterious airline, Civil Air
Transport (CAT), of which 60 percent was owned by the Taiwan regime and 40
percent by the CIA.[5] On behalf of United Fruit, Corcoran triggered a CIA
plot — in which E. Howard Hunt was the agency's chief political action
officer — to overthrow Guatemala's President Jacobo Arbenz in 1954.[6]
OSS China hand Willis Bird settled in Bangkok, Thailand to head an office of
Sea Supply, Inc., a CIA proprietary headquartered in Miami, which furnished
weapons to opium-smuggling Nationalist Chinese (KMT) troops in Burma. One
William Bird, representing CAT in Bangkok, coordinated CAT airdrops to KMT
troops and ran an engineering firm that constructed short airstrips used for
the collection of Laotian opimu.[7]
Sea Supply also provided arms and aid to Phao Sriyanonda, the head of
Thailand's 45,000-man paramilitary police force and reputedly one of the most
corrupt men in the history of that corruption-ridden nation. For years his
troops protected KMT opium smugglers and directed the drug trade from
Thailand.[8]
When President John F. Kennedy in 1962 attempted a crackdown on the most
hawkish CIA elements in Indochina, he sought the prosecution of Willis Bird,
who had been charged with the bribery of an aid official in Vientiane. But
Bird never returned to the U.S. to stand trial.
Upon returning to Miami, the OSS Chief of Special Intelligence and head of
Detachment 202 in Kunming, Colonel Paul Helliwell, was a busy man. In Miami
offices of the American Bankers Insurance Co. he functioned simultaneously as
the Thai consul, an the counsel for Sea Supply as well as for insurance
companies run by his former subordinate C.V. Starr.[9] American Bankers
Insurance was itself a most unusual firm; one of its directors, James L.
King, was also a director of the Miami National Bank through which the Lansky
syndicate reportedly passed millions en route to Geneva's Swiss Exchange and
Investment Bank. One of the Swiss bank's directors, Lou Poller, also sat on
the board of King's Miami National Bank.[10]
Moreover, in the fifties and sixties, Thai and Nationalist Chinese capital
was invested in Florida's explosive development, much of it by way of the
General Development Corporation controlled by associates of Meyer Lansky.[11]
It's important to note the dubious alliance of Southeast Asian power groups
with those concerned with Florida and Cuba. This early mutuality of business
interests is the key to all that follows, and Miami is the nerve center to
which we will continually return.
The alliance was comprised of the China Lobby, OSS China hands, Cuban exiles,
the Lansky syndicate, and CIA hawks pushing for all-out involvement in
Indochina and against Castro's Cuba. It coalesced between 1961 and 1963, and
its members had three things in common: a right wing political outlook, an
interest in Asian opium, and a thirst for political might. The last factor
led to another common denominator in which the alliance invested heavily:
Richard M. Nixon.
Some people effectively overlap the entire spectrum of the alliance. Among
them are Howard Hunt and Tommy Corcoran, the man behind United Fruit's dirty
work. United Fruit was a client of the Miami-based Double-Chek Corp., a CIA
front that supplied planes for the Bay of Pigs invasion.[12] Corcoran was the
Washington escort of General Chennault's widow Anna Chen Chennault, erstwhile
head of the China Lobby, the key to Southeast Asian opium.[13]
Another key figure in the China Lobby was weapons dealer/financier William
Pawley, the American cofounder of Chennault's Flying Tigers.[14] Pawley's
name was the password to intrigue: OSS China, Tommy Corcoran,[15] CIA cover
firms,[16] and arms shipments to KMT Chinese on Taiwan in defiance of a State
Department refusal of authorization." All were either directly or indirectly
connected to Pawley. He also rubbed elbows with the U.S. heroin Mafia when,
in 1963, he, Santo Trafficante, Jr. and Cuban exiles took part in one of the
countless boat raids on Cuba.[18]
The China Lobby's Southeast Asian connection naturally went via the Taiwan
regime, which controlled the opium-growing Chinese in the Golden Triangle
and, with the CIA, owned the opium-running CAT airlines. As Ross Y. Koen
wrote in 1964:
"There is considerable evidence that a number of Nationalist Chinese
officials are engaged in the illegal smuggling of narcotics into the United
States with the full knowledge and connivance of the Nationalist Chinese
government. The evidence indicates that several prominent Americans have
participated in and profited from these transactions. It indicates further
that the narcotics business has been an important factor in the activities
and permutations of the China Lobby." [19]
British writer Frank Robertson went one step further in 1977:
"Taiwan is a major link in the Far East narcotics route, and a heroin
producer. Much of the acetic anhydride -the chemical necessary for the
transformation of morphine into heroin -smuggled into Hong Kong and Thailand,
comes from this island, a dictatorship under the iron rule of the late Chiang
Kai-shek's son, Chiang Chingkuo."[20]
When the Communists routed Chiang Kai-shek's forces in 1949, some 10,000 KMT
troops fled to Southeast Asia and settled in a remote part of Burma. Heavily
armed, they soon assumed control of the area and intermarried with the local
population. Under General Li Mi they continued to infiltrate China proper,
but each time they were repulsed. While awaiting Chiang's signal for a final,
two-front onslaught, Burma's KMT army needed a source of income. Many had
grown opium in Yunnan and so the poppies, which flourished on the hillsides,
became the force's cash crop.
Around 1950 the CIA became interested in the KMT troops. With General Douglas
MacArthur pushing to arm them for an attack on Red China, the agency secretly
flew them weapons in CAT airplanes. But when the KMT instead used the weapons
against the Burmese army, Burma protested before the UN, where it was decided
that 2000 KMT troops would be flown by CAT to Taiwan by 1954. Those who
eventually made the trip, however, were only farmers and mountain people in
KMT uniforms, and the weapons they took out were obsolete.[21] Nonetheless,
with help from the Red Chinese army, Burma drove most of the KMT forces into
Thailand and Laos, though many later returned. The Kuomintang and their kin
now number over 50,000. Though only a fraction are soldiers, the KMT still
controls hundreds of thousands of Chinese occupying the region, especially in
Thailand.
The junction of Burma, Thailand, and Laos, the Golden Triangle, is the site
of the bulk of the world's opium production and thereby the source of
enormous fortunes for the French and later the Americans. The French held
effective control over the Southeast Asian opium traffic until 1965. Between
1946 and 1955 the Mixed Airborne Commando Group (MACG) and the French Air
Force managed the shipment of opium from Burma to Laos. A guerilla corps
comprised mostly of Laotian Meo tribesmen and led by Colonel Roger Trinquier,
MACG remained unusually independent despite its direct connections to the
SDECE and Deuxieme (Second) Bureau. To finance their secret Indochina
operations, these organizations turned to the smuggling of gold and opium,
with MACG in charge of the latter. Large quantities of opium were shipped to
French Saigon headquarters and passed on to the Corsican Mafia, who in turn
smuggled the drug to Marseilles.
When the French withdrew from Indochina in 1955 after their defeat by the
Vietminh, and after the CIA pushed aside the SDECE, MACG leaders
communicating through CIA agent Lucien Conein offered the Americans their
entire guerilla force. Against Conein's advice they refused.[22] History
would cast doubt on the wisdom of that decision.
In 1955 CIA agent General Edward Lansdale began a war to liquidate the
Corsican supply network. While Lansdale was cracking down on the French
infrastructure, his employer the CIA was running proprietaries, like Sea
Supply and CAT, that worked hand-in-hand with the opium-smuggling Nationalist
Chinese of the Golden Triangle, and with the corrupt Thai border police.[23]
The Lansdale/ Corsican vendetta lasted several years, during which many
attempts were made on Lansdale's life. Oddly enough, his principal informant
on Corsican drug routes and connections was the former French Foreign
Legionnaire, Lucien Conein, then of the CIA. Conein knew just about every
opium field, smuggler, trail, airstrip, and Corsican in Southeast Asia. He
spent his free time with the Corsicans, who considered him one of their own.
Apparently they never realized it was he who was turning them in.[24]
When Lansdale returned from Vietnam in the late fifties, the Corsicans
recouped some of their losses, chartering aging aircraft to establish Air
Opium, which functioned until around 1965. That year, the Corsicans' nemesis
Lansdale returned to Vietnam as an advisor to Amabassador[sic] Lodge. There
was also an upheaval in the narcotics traffic, and perhaps the two were
connected. CIA-backed South Vietnamese and Laotian generals began taking over
the opium traffic — and as they did so, increasing amounts of morphine and
low-quality heroin began showing up on the Saigon market.
The first heroin refineries sprang up in Laos under the control of General
Ouane Rattikone. President Ky in Saigon was initially in charge of smuggling
from the Laotian refineries to the South Vietnamese; and Lansdale's office,
it is to be remembered, was working closely with Ky. Lansdale himself was one
of Ky's heartiest supporters, and Conein went along with whatever Lansdale
said.[25]
One result of the smuggling takeover by the generals was the end of the
Corsicans' Air Opium. The KMT Chinese and Meo tribesmen who cultivated raw
opium either transported it themselves to the refineries or had it flown
there by the CIA via CAT and its successor, Air America, another agency
proprietary. Though the Corsicans still sent drugs to Marseilles, the price
was becoming prohibitive, since they were forced to buy opium and morphine in
Saigon and Vientiane rather than pick up the opium for peanuts in the
mountains.
In 1967 a three-sided opium war broke out in Laos between a Burmese Shan
State warlord, KMT Chinese and General Rattikone's Laotian army. Rattikone
emerged victorious, capturing the opium shipment with the help of
U.S.-supplied aircraft. The KMT, for its part, managed to reassert its
dominance over the warlord. The smuggling picture was becoming simplified,
with Southeast Asian opium divided among fewer hands, and most of the
Corsicans out of the way.
General Lansdale returned to the U.S. in 1967, leaving Conein in Vietnam. The
next year Conein greeted a new boss, William Colby. Since 1962 Colby had run
the agency's special division for covert operations in Southeast Asia, where
his responsibilities included the " secret" CIA war in Laos with its
30,000-man Meo army. He shared that responsibility with the U.S.
amabassador[sic] in Laos, William H. Sullivan, who would later preside over
the Tehran embassy during the fall of the Shah.
Many of the agents who ran the CIA's war in Laos had earlier trained Cuban
exiles for the Bay of Pigs invasion, and afterward had taken part in the
agency's continued secret operations against Cuba.[26] Since exiles were
furnished by the Trafficante mob,[27] intelligence agents had intermingled
with representatives of America's number one narcotics organization. The same
agents would now become involved with the extensive opium smuggling from Meo
tribesmen camps to Vientiane.[28]
In 1967 Colby devised a plan of terror for the "pacification" of Vietnam.
Operation Phoenix organized the torture and murder of any Vietnamese
suspected of the slightest association with Vietcong. Just as Lansdale was
travelling home, Colby was sent to South Vietnam to put his brainchild to
work. According to Colby's own testimony before a Senate committee, 20,857
Vietcong were murdered in Phoenix's first two years. The figure of the South
Vietnamese government for the same period was over 40, 000.[29[
It was during Colby's tour in Vietnam that the heroin turned out by General
Ouane Rattikone's labs appeared in quantity, and with unusually high quality.
The great heroin wave brought on a GI addiction epidemic in 1970;
Congressional reports indicated that some 22 percent of all U.S. soldiers
sampled the drugs and 15 percent became hooked.[30]
Former Air Marshal, then Vice President, Nguyen Cao Ky (now alive and well in
the United States) and his underlings still controlled most of the traffic.
President Nguyen Van Thieu and his faction, comprised mostly of army and navy
officers, were also in it up to their necks. According to NBC's Saigon
correspondent, Thieu's closest advisor, General Dang Van Quang, was the man
most responsible for the monkey on the U.S. Army's back. But the U.S. Saigon
embassy, where Colby was second in command, found no substance to the
accusations, Ky's record notwithstanding: Ky had been removed from U.S.
Operation Haylift, which flew commando units into Laos, for loading his aircra
ft with opium on the return trips.
In the face of skyrocketing GI heroin abuse, the Army Criminal Investigation
Division (CID) looked into General Ngo Dzu's complicity in the heroin traffic
and filed a lengthy report at the U.S. embassy.[31] The embassy ignored the
report and chose not to forward it to Washington.[32] The BNDD also
investigated the roots of the heroin epidemic, but was impeded in its work by
the CIA and U.S. embassy. In 1971, however, a string of heroin labs were
uncovered in Thailand, and a number were closed down.
In 1971, furthermore, Colby and Conein were recalled to the United States.
Colby became the Deputy Director of Operations, the man in charge of the
CIA's covert operations. More remarkable, though, was Conein's homecoming
after twenty-four years of periodic service to the CIA in Indochina, raising
the question of why the U.S.'s foremost expert on Indochina had been brought
back to Washington just as the crucial phase of Vietnamization was about to
begin.[33] Ironically, Corsican friends still around for Conein's departure
presented him with a farewell gold medallion bearing the seal of the Corsican
Union.
At the war's cataclysmic end, the CIA admitted that "certain elements in the
organization" had been involved in opium smuggling and that the illegal
activities of U.S. allies had been overlooked to retain their loyalties. In
reality, the agency had been forced to confess because of its inability to
refute the tales of returning GIs, among them that of Green Beret Paul
Withers, a recipient of nine Purple Hearts, the Distinguished Service Cross
and Silver and Bronze Stars:
"After completing basic training at Fort Dix in the fall of 1965 [Withers]
was sent to Nha Trang, South Vietnam. Although he was ostensibly stationed
there, he was placed on 'loan' to the CIA in January 1966 and sent to Pak
Seng, Laos. Before going there he and his companions were stripped of their
uniforms and all American credentials. They were issued Czechoslovakian guns
and Korean uniforms. Paul even signed blank sheets of paper at the bottom and
the CIA later typed out letters and sent them to his parents and wife. All
this was done to hide the fact that there were American troops operating in
Laos.
"The mission in Laos was to make friends with the Meo people and organize and
train them to fight the Pathet Lao. One of the main tasks was to buy up the
entire local crop of opium. About twice a week an Air America plane would
arrive with supplies and kilo bags of opium which were loaded on the plane.
Each bag was marked with the symbol of the tribe."[34]
The CIA, reportedly, did not support any form of smuggling after 1968. Del
Rosario, a former CIA operative, had something to say about that:
"In 19711 was an operations assistant for Continental Air Service, which flew
for the CIA in Laos. The company's transport planes shipped large quantities
of rice. However, when the freight invoice was marked 'Diverse' I knew it was
opium. As a rule an office telephone with a special number would ring and a
voice would say 'The customer here'-that was the code designation for the CIA
agents who had hired us. 'Keep an eye on the planes from Ban Houai Sai. We're
sending some goods and someone's going to take care of it. Nobody's allowed
to touch anything, and nothing can be unloaded,' was a typical message. These
shipments were always top priority. Sometimes the opium was unloaded in
Vientiane and stored in Air America depots. At other times it went on to
Bangkok or Saigon.[35]
Even while the CIA trafficked in opium, President Nixon ranted on TV against
drug abuse and lauded the crackdown against French smuggling networks.
pps. 129-139
--[Notes]--
1. E.H. Hunt: Undercover (Berkeley-Putnam, 1974).
2. Another of Conein's OSS sidekicks, Mitchell WerBell 111, was years later
indicted in a major drug conspiracy case (T. Dunkin: "The Great Pot Plot," Sol
dier of Fortune, Vol. 2, No. 1, 1977), and now runs an antiterrorist training
school in Georgia (T. Dunkin: "WerBell's Cobray School," Soldier of Fortune, V
ol. 5, No. 1, 1980).
3. D. Moldea: The Hoffa Wars (Charter Books, 1978).
4. U.S. Congress, Senate, Select Committee on Improper Activities in the
Labor or Management Field, Hearings, 85th Cong., 2nd Sess. (cited in P.D.
Scott: The War Conspiracy, Bobbs-Merrill, 1972).
5. CAT, which became Air America, was also identical with the "CATCL" that
emerged from Claire Chennault's Flying Tigers.
6. D. Wise and T.B. Ross: The Invisible Government (Random House, 1964);
Hunt, op. cit.
7. Scott, op. cit.
8. F. Robertson: Triangle of Death (Routledge and Keagen Paul, 1977); A.
McCoy: The Politics of Heroin in Southeast Asia (Harper & Row, 1972).
9. Scott, op. cit.
10. New York Times, 1 December 1969; H. Messick: Lansky (Berkeley, 1971). 11.
Carl 0. Hoffmann, the former OSS agent and general counsel of the Thai king
in New York in 1945-50, later became the chairman of Lansky associates' First
Florida Resource Corp.
12. L. Gonzalez-Mata: Cygne (Grasset, 1976).
13. R.Y.Koen: The China Lobby in American Politics (Harper& Row, 1974). 14.
Pawley, the ultraconservative former Pan Am executive and Assistant Secretary
of both State and Defense, set up the Flying Tigers under a secret order of
President Franklin D. Roosevelt exempting him from U.S. neutrality
provisions; see A. Chan Chennault: Chennault's Flying Tigers (Eriksson, 1963).
15. Corcoran assisted in the establishment of the Flying Tigers and later
Civil Air Transport; see Scott, op. cit.
16. Lindsey Hopkins, Jr., whose sizable investments included Miami Beach
hotels, was an officer of the CIA proprietary, Zenith Technical Enterprises
of Bay of Pigs note. He was also an officer of the Sperry Corp., through
whose subsidiary, the Intercontinental Corp., Pawley helped found the Flying
Tigers in 1941. Pawley was Intercontinental's president. See Scott, op. cit.
17. U.S. Congress, Senate, Committee on Judiciary, Communist Threat to the
United States through the Caribbean, Hearings, 86th Cong., 2nd Sess. (cited
in Scott, op. cit.).
18. See chapter fifteen; it has also been revealed that a prominent Chinese
American, Dr. Margaret Chung of San Francisco, who was a major supporter
of the Flying Tigers, trafficked in narcotics together with the Syndicate;
see P.D. Scott: "Opium and Empire," Bulletin of Concerned Asian Scholars, Sept
ember 1973.
19. Koen, op. cit. 20. Robertson, op. cit.. After a one-year suspension, the
U.S. State Department recently approved the sale of $280 million in military
weaponry to the repressive Taiwan regime (New York Times, 20 January 1980),
the same regime whose disdain for human rights was most recently expressed by
the preparation of cases of sedition against sixty-five opposition
demonstrators (New York Times, 24 January 1980). The CIA's Taiwan station
chief in the late fifties and early sixties, when the unholy alliances were
forged, was Ray S. Cline. Closely associated with the China Lobby, Cline
became famous for his drunken binges with Chiang Ching-kuo, currently the
president of Taiwan (see V. Marchetti and J.D. Marks: CIA and Cult of
Intelligence, Jonathan Cape, 1974). A CIA hawk, Cline also helped a gigantic
Bay of Pigs-style invasion of the Chinese mainland which was rejected by
President Kennedy. Cline is currently the "director of world power studies"
at Georgetown's Center for Strategic and International Studies (CSIS), which,
according to writer Fred Landis ("Georgetown's Ivory Tower for Spooks," Inquir
y, 30 September 1979), "is rapidly becoming the New Right's most
sophisticated propaganda mill." In testimony before the House Select
Committee on Intelligence, Cline defended CIA manipulation of the press,
saying "You know that first amendment is only an amendment."
21. McCoy, op. cit.
22. D. Warner: The Last Confucian (Angus & Robertson, 1964). 23. McCoy, op. ci
t.
24. Conein told writer McCoy: "The Corsicans are smarter, tougher and better
organized than the Sicilians. They are absolutely ruthless and are the equal
of anything we know about the Sicilians, but they hide their internal
fighting better." (McCoy, op. cit.).
25. McCoy, op. cit.
26. T. Branch and G. Crile III: "The Kennedy Vendetta," Harper's, August 1975.
27. U.S. Congress, Senate, Select Committee to Study Governmental Operations
with respect to Intelligence Activities, Alleged Assassination Plots
Involving Foreign Leaders, Interim Report, 94th Cong., 1st Sess. Senate
Report No. 94-463, 1975.
28. C. Lamour and M.R. Lamberti: Les Grandes Maneuvres de l'0pium (Editions
du Seuil, 1972); McCoy, op. cit.; Committee of Concerned Asian Scholars: The
Opium Rail (New England Free Press, 1971).
29. Marchetti and Marks, op. cit.
30. Congressman M.F. Murphy and R.H. Steele: The World Heroin Problem (U.S.
Govt. Printing Office, 1971).
31. Like Nguyen Cao Ky, Ngo Dzu came to the U.S. as a refugee after the final
debacle in South Vietnam. Though accused by Rep. Steele of responsibility for
the addiction of thousands of GIs to heroin, Dzu went about as a free man
until his 13 February 1977 death in Sacramento of apparent heart failure.
32. McCoy, op. cit.
33. Conein's summons home coincided with Howard Hunt's recruitment by the
White House and the creation of the special narcotics and Plumbers groups.
34. Committee of Concerned Asian Scholars, op. cit. 35. Lamour and Lamberti,
op. cit. (quote retranslated from the French).
--[cont]--
Aloha, He'Ping,
Om, Shalom, Salaam.
Em Hotep, Peace Be,
Omnia Bona Bonis,
All My Relations.
Adieu, Adios, Aloha.
Amen.
Roads End
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