from: http://carlisle-www.army.mil/usawc/Parameters/1992/dunlap.htm Click Here: <A HREF="http://carlisle-www.army.mil/usawc/Parameters/1992/dunlap.htm">PARAMETER S, US Army War College Quarterly - Win�</A> ----- NOTES 1. The Twenty-fifth Amendment to the Constitution provides that in the case of "death . . . the Vice President shall become the President." But Section 1 of Article II requires the taking of the oath before "enter[ing] the Execution of his Office." 2. Daniel J. Boorstin, "History's Hidden Turning Points," U.S. News & World Report, 22 April 1991, p. 52. 3. Oliver Stone's movie, JFK, is one example. See Joel Achenbach, "JFK Conspiracy: Myth vs. Facts," The Washington Post, 28 February 1992, p. C5. 4. See Len Colodny and Robert Gettlin, Silent Coup (New York: St. Martin's, 1991). 5. George Washington in his "Farewell Address" dated 19 September 1796 counseled: "Overgrown military establishments . . . under any form of government are inauspicious to liberty and . . . are to be regarded as particularly hostile to republican liberty." As quoted in The Annals of America (Chicago: Encyclopedia Britannica, 1976), p. 609. 6. Author Geoffrey Perret expressed the traditional view as follows: "The antimilitaristic side of the American character is forever on guard. Americans are so suspicious of military ambition that even when the armed forces win wars they are criticized as robustly as if they had lost them." A Country Made By War (New York: Vintage, 1989), p. 560. 7. Andrew C. Janos, "The Seizure of Power: A Study of Force and Popular Consent," Research Monograph No. 16, Center for International Studies, Princeton University, 1964, p. 39. 8. Mark S. Hoffman, ed., The World Almanac & Book of Facts 1991 (New York: Pharo Books, 1990), p. 426; Royce Crocker, Voter Registration and Turnout 1948-1988, Library of Congress, Congressional Research Service Report No. 89-179 (Washington: LOC, 1989), p. 11. 9. E. J. Dionne, Jr., "Altered States: The Union & the Campaign," The Washington Post, 26 January 1992, p. C1. Fordham University researcher Marc Miringoff reports that the Index of Social Indicators fell to its lowest point in 20 years. He describes the Index, which is an amalgamation of social and economic data from government sources, as "sort of a Dow Jones of the national soul." See Paul Taylor, "`Dow Jones of the National Soul' Sours," The Washington Post, 16 January 1992, p. A25. The nation's frustration was the cause, according to columnist George F. Will, of a rising level of collective "national stress." George F. Will, "Stressed Out in America," The Washington Post, 16 January 1992, p. A27. See also Charles Krauthammer, "America's Case of the Sulks," The Washington Post, 19 January 1992, p. C7. 10. A 1989 Harris poll revealed that 53% of Americans believed that Congress was not effectively fulfilling its responsibilities. See Robert R. Ivany, "Soldiers and Legislators: Common Mission," Parameters, 21 (Spring 1991), 47. 11. Mortimer B. Zuckerman, "Behind Our Loss of Faith," U.S. News & World Report, 16 March 1992, p. 76. Many believed that democracy's promise didn't include them. Ninety-one percent of Americans reported that the "group with too little influence in government is people like themselves." See "Harper's Index," Harper's Magazine, January 1991, p. 17. 12. David Finkle, "The Greatest Democracy on Earth," The Washington Post Magazine, 16 February 1992, p. 16. Forty-three percent of those who failed to vote didn't see any important differences between the two major parties. See "Harper's Index," Harper's Magazine, March 1992, p. 13. One in eight Americans was so pessimistic as to conclude that the country's domestic problems were "beyond solving." "Harper's Index," Harper's Magazine, October 1991, p. 15. 13. A ten-year rise in public confidence was reported by Tom Morganthau, et al., in "The Military's New Image," Newsweek, 11 March 1991, p. 50. 14. Michael Satchell, et al., "The Military's New Stars," U.S. News & World Report, 18 April 1988, p. 33. 15. A survey of 163 new Army brigadier generals revealed that their IQ was in the 92nd percentile of the population. See Bruce W. Nelan, "Revolution in Defense," Time, 18 March 1991, p. 25. In many instances the curricula vitae of military personnel was more impressive than that of their civilian counterparts. For example, over 88% of brigadier generals had an advanced degree compared with 19% of top civilian business leaders. See David Gergen, "America's New Heroes," U.S. News & World Report, 11 February 1991, p. 76. Similarly, 97% of enlisted personnel were high school graduates, the highest percentage ever. See Grant Willis, "DoD: Recruits in '91 Best Educated, Most Qualified," Air Force Times, 27 January 1992, p. 14. The services "had become practically a drug-free workplace." See David Gergen, "Bringing Home the Storm," The Washington Post, 28 April 1991, p. C2. Military sociologist Charles Moskos explained that the reason for the great decline in disciplinary problems is "simply better recruits." Peter Slavin, "Telling It Like It Is," Air Force Times, 14 March 1988, p. 60. 16. Ivany, 47; David Gergen, "America's New Heroes," p. 76; Grant Willis, "A New Generation of Warriors," Navy Times, 16 March 1991, p. 12. 17. 408 U.S. 1, 17 (1972). 18. At least one observer sensed the peril which arises when power and respect converge in the military: "Our warriors are kinder and gentler, and have not shown the slightest inclination to lust for political power. But that potential always lurks where power and respect converge, and the degree of military influence in society is something to watch carefully in the years ahead." Martin Anderson, "The Benefits of the Warrior Class," The Baltimore Sun, 14 April 1991, p. 3F. 19. James Fallows, "Military Efficiency," Atlantic, August 1991, p. 18. 20. Civilian law enforcement agencies were intercepting only 15% of the drugs entering the country. See U.S. Code Congressional & Administrative News (St. Paul: West, 1981), p. 1785; Public Law 97-86 (1981) codified in 10 U.S.C. 371 et seq. 21. Newsweek reports: "The Pentagon resisted the [counternarcotics] mission for decades, saying that the military should fight threats to national security, and the police should fight crime." Charles Lane, "The Newest War," Newsweek, 6 January 1992, p. 18. See also U.S. Code Congressional & Administrative News (St. Paul: West, 1981), p. 1785. 22. The original purpose of the Posse Comitatus Act (10 U.S.C. 1385) was to restrain Federal troops who had become deeply involved in law enforcement in the post-Civil War South--even in areas where civil government had been reestablished. See U.S. v. Hartley, 486 F.Supp. 1348, 1356 fn. 11 (M.D.Fla. 1980). The statute imposes criminal penalties for the improper uses of the military in domestic law enforcement matters. See U.S. Code Congressional & Administrative News (St. Paul: West, 1981), p. 1786. 23. Additional amendments were added in 1988. See Public Law 100-456 (1988). 24. Although anti-drug spending will decrease in FY 93, the rate of decline is slower than that of the DOD budget as a whole. William Matthews, "Counternarcotics Request Increased," Air Force Times, 24 February 1992, p. 2. See also Lane, "Newest War," p. 18. 25. "Combatting Drugs," National Military Strategy of the United States (Washington: GPO, 1992), p. 15. 26. Some were suggesting the need for greater military authority in 1992. See Dale E. Brown, "Drugs on the Border: The Role of the Military," Parameters, 21 (Winter 1991-92), 58-59. 27. The rise in the rate of violent crime continued a trend begun in the 1980s when such offenses soared by 23%. See John W. Wright, ed., "Crime and Punishment," The Universal Almanac 1992 (Kansas City: Andrews and McMeel, 1991), p. 255. 28. "Harper's Index," Harper's Magazine, July 1991, p. 15. 29. George Will observed that "urban governments are failing to perform their primary function of protecting people from violence on streets and even in homes and schools." George F. Will, "Stressed Out in America," p. A27. 30. Using Guardsmen in a law enforcement capacity during riots and other emergencies was not unusual, but a regular presence in a civilian community in that role was unusual in those days. Guard members usually performed law enforcement activities in their status as state employees. This is distinct from their federalized status when they are incorporated into the US military. See U.S. Code Congressional & Administrative News (St. Paul: West, 1988), p. 2583; and K. R. Clark, "Spotlighting the Drug Zone," Pentagram, 30 January 1992, pp. 20-21. 31. Indeed, one of the specific purposes of the DC program was to "work with police to increase the uniformed presence in the neighborhood at night to cut down on illegal activity." See Clark p. 21. 32. For example, persons over the age of 65 vote at a rate 50% higher than that of the 18-34 age group. See George F. Will, "Stressed Out in America," p. A27. 33. The number of baby boomers in the population is expected to peak in 2020. See Marvin J. Cetron and Owen Davies, "Trends Shaping the World," The Futurist , September-October 1991, p. 12. Persons over 65 were estimated to constitute 18% of the electorate by 2010. This group, together with the boomers over 45 years, would constitute 53% of the electorate by 2010. These percentages were computed from statistics found in the Universal Almanac 1992, "The U.S. Population by Age," John W. Wright, ed. (Kansas City: Andrews and McMeel, 1991), p. 207. 34. Deidre Fanning, "Waiting for the Wealth," Worth, February/March 1992, pp. 87, 89. 35. A 1990 poll of Americans aged 50 years and older showed that nearly 23% believed that use of the military was the best way to combat the growing problems of drug abuse and crime. See Mark S. Hoffman, ed., The World Almanac & Book of Facts 1991 (New York: Pharo Books, 1990), p. 33. 36. "Plan to Open Veterans Hospitals to Poor is Dropped," The New York Times, 23 February 1992, p. 17. 37. Scott Shuger, "Pacify the Military," The New York Times, 14 March 1992, p. 25. 38. Andy Tobias, "Let's Get Moving!" Time, 3 February 1992, p. 41. 39. U.S. News & World Report noted that "a third of the officers leaving the Army are qualified to teach high school math, and 10 to 20 percent can teach physics." David Gergen, "Heroes For Hire," U.S. News & World Report, 27 January 1992, p. 71. 40. For example, a District of Columbia National Guard unit entered into a "Partnership in Education" agreement with a local school district. Under the memorandum the Guard agreed to "institute a cooperative learning center providing tutoring in science, English, mathematics, and other basic subjects." See "Guard Enters Partnership with School," Pentagram, 13 February 1992, p. 3. For another example, see "Arlington Schools Join Forces with Defense Department Agency," The Washington Post, 12 December 1991, p. Va. 1. 41. The DOD budget for environmental cleanup for FY 93 was $3.7 billion. Anne Garfinkle, "Going Home is Hard to Do," The Wall Street Journal, 27 January 1992, p. 12. See also Peter Grier, "US Defense Department Declares War on Colossal Pollution Problem," The Christian Science Monitor, 2 March 1992, p. 9. The Army, at least, saw this activity as a "vital mission" as early as 1991. The National Journal reported: "Outside the Storm, a pamphlet heralding the Army's post-Persian Gulf war `vital missions and important work' touches on the war on drugs and `protecting the planet Earth' (even reprinting a syrupy ode to environmentalism from the 1989 Sierra Club Wilderness Calendar)." David C. Morrison, "Operation Kinder and Gentler," National Journal, 25 May 1991, p. 1260. 42. In February 1992 Trans World Airlines became the eighth major airline to go bankrupt since 1989. Martha M. Hamilton, "Trans World Airlines Files for Bankruptcy," The Washington Post, 1 February 1992, p. C2. By 1992 US-flagged commercial shipping had virtually disappeared. See James Bovard, "The Antiquated 1920 Jones Act Slowly Sinks U.S. Shipping," Insight, 6 January 1992, p. 21. In the wake of Desert Storm, $3.1 billion was spent to build and convert ships for the military's cargo fleet. Michael Blood, "An Idea to Use Shipyard as a U.S. Sealift Base," Philadelphia Inquirer, 16 February 1992, p. B-1. The precedent for "leasing" military resources can be traced to 1992. Just such an arrangement occurred in Germany following reunification: "A shortage of German [air] controllers and their unfamiliarity with newly reunified Berlin's busy skies prompted Germany to hire a squadron from the US Air Force at a cost of $35 million for four years. . . . It is the only US military unit that guides civilian air traffic on foreign soil." Soraya S. Nelson, "AF Controllers in Berlin Keep Eye on Civilian Sky," Air Force Times, 10 February 1992, p. 22. 43. See, e.g., Helen Dewar, "Nunn Urges Military Shift: Forces Would Aid Domestic Programs," The Washington Post, 24 June 1992, p. A17; Rick Maze, "Nunn Urges Military to Take Domestic Missions, Army Times, 21 September 1992, p. 16; Mary Jordan, "Bush Orders U.S. Military to Aid Florida," The Washington Post, 28 August 1992, p. A1; George C. Wilson, "Disaster Plan: Give Military the Relief Role," Army Times, 21 September 1992, p. 33; and Rick Maze, "Pentagon May Get Disaster-relief Role Back," Army Times, 21 September 1992, p. 26. See also note 64. 44. See Shuger, p. 25. Similarly, noting the growing obsolescence of the Guard's combat role, a National Guard officer proposed an alternative: "The National Guard can provide a much greater service to the nation by seeking more combat support and combat service support missions and the structure to support them. Such units can participate in nation building or assistance missions throughout the world, to include the United States. . . . Much of our national infrastructure, streets, bridges, health care, water and sewer lines, to name just a few, particularly in the inner cities of the United States, are in disrepair. Many of the necessary repairs could be accomplished by National guard units on a year-round training basis." Colonel Philip Drew, "Taking the National Guard Out of Combat," National Guard, April 1991, p. 38. Also jumping on the bandwagon are National Guard officers Colonel Philip A. Brehm and Major Wilbur E. Gray in "Alternative Missions for the Army," SSI Study, Strategic Studies Institute, USAWC, 17 July 1992. 45. Eric Schmitt, "U.S. Forces Find Work As Angels Of Mercy," The New York Times, 12 January 1992, p. E3. 46. See the legislative history of Public Law 99-661, U.S. Code Congressional & Administrative News (St. Paul: West, 1986) p. 6482. Public Law 99-661 codified in 10 U.S.C. 401 et seq. 47. Ken Adelman, "Military Helping Hands," Washington Times, 8 July 1991, p. D3; Bruce B. Auster with Robin Knight, "The Pentagon Scramble to Stay Relevant," U.S. News & World Report, 30 December 1991/6 January 1992, p. 52. 48. It was predicted that the AIDS epidemic would hit Africa especially hard with infection rates in some cities as high as 40% by the year 2000. See Marvin J. Cetron and Owen Davies, "Trends Shaping the World," The Futurist, September-October 1991, p. 12. Some experts have predicted that African famine might present a requirement for a military humanitarian mission (Weiss and Campbell, pp. 451-52). See also Richard H. P. Sia, "U.S. Increasing Its Special Forces Activity in Africa," The Baltimore Sun, 15 March 1992, p. 1. Long-term military commitments to humanitarian operations have been recommended by some experts (Weiss and Campbell, p. 457). 49. US troops assigned to African countries in the early 1990s were tasked to "help improve local health-care and economic conditions." See Sia, p. 1. Similarly, the notion of using the expertise of US military personnel to perform governmental functions in foreign countries was also suggested in the 1990s. For example, when the food distribution system in the former Soviet Union broke down during the winter of 1991-92, there were calls for Lieutenant General Gus Pagonis, the logistical wizard of the First Gulf War, to be dispatched to take charge of the system. See "A Man Who Knows How," editorial, The Los Angeles Times, 5 February 1992, p. 10. 50. As quoted in Dictionary of Military and Naval Quotations, Robert Debs Heinl, Jr., ed. (Annapolis: US Naval Institute, 1966), p. 245. 51. Public Law 99-433 (1986). Under the Goldwater-Nichols Defense Reorganization Act, the Chairman of the JCS was given much broader powers. Not only is he now the primary military advisor to the President, he is also responsible for furnishing strategic direction to the armed forces, strategic and contingency planning, establishing budget priorities, and developing joint doctrine for all four services. Edward Luttwak and Stuart L. Koehl, eds., The Dictionary of Modern War (New York: Harper Collins, 1991), p. 320. The law also mandated that joint duty be a requirement for promotion to flag rank. See Vincent Davis, "Defense Reorganization and National Security," The Annals of the American Academy of Political Science, September 1991, pp. 163-65. This facilitated development of senior military cliques which transcended service lines. 52. Many praised Goldwater-Nichols as the source of success in the Gulf War. See, e.g., "Persian Gulf War's Unsung Hero," editorial, Charleston, S.C., News & Courier, 4 April 1991, p. 6. See also Sam Nunn, "Military Reform Paved Way for Gulf Triumph," Atlanta Constitution, 31 March 1991, p. G5. But the Gulf War was not a true test of either Goldwater-Nichols or joint warfare. About all that conflict demonstrated was that poorly trained and miserably led conscript armies left unprotected from air attack cannot hold terrain in the face of a modern ground assault. 53. One study concluded that because of Powell's background he was "especially well qualified" for the politically sensitive role as CJCS. See Preston Niblock, ed., Managing Military Operations in Crises (Santa Monica: RAND, 1991), p. 51. 54. Representative Denton stated as to Goldwater-Nichols: "This legislation proposes to reverse 200 years of American history by, for the first time, designating by statute . . . a single uniformed officer as the "Principal Military Advisor" to the President. That change in the role of the Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff is profound in its implications. Similar proposals have been specifically and overwhelmingly rejected in the past--in 1947, 1949, 1958--on the grounds that, in a democracy, no single military officer, no matter what his personal qualifications, should have such power." U.S. Code Congressional & Administrative News (St. Paul, Minn.: West, 1986), p. 2248. See also Robert Previdi, Civilian Control versus Military Rule (New York: Hippocrene Books, 1988). 55. In The Federalist No. 51 the Founding Fathers warned against the folly of constructing a governmental system based on assumptions about the good character of individuals who might occupy an office. 56. William Matthews, "Nunn: Merge the Services?" Air Force Times, 9 March 1992, p. 6. 57. This belief was enshrined in Joint Pub 1, Joint Warfare of the United States (Washington: Office of the JCS, 11 November 1991). It states (p. iii) that "joint warfare is essential to victory." While joint warfare might usually be essential to victory, it cannot be said that it is essential in every instance. For example, rebels--composed entirely of irregular infantry--defeated massive Soviet combined-arms forces in Afghanistan. Equipped only with light arms, Stinger missiles, and light antiaircraft guns, they triumphed without benefit of any air or naval forces, and indeed without unity among themselves. Furthermore, even in the case of Western nations, there are likely to be plenty of hostilities involving single-service air or naval campaigns. 58. Former Secretary of the Navy John Lehman described the value of this creative tension in discussing his criticism of the "unified" Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff occasioned by Goldwater-Nichols. According to Lehman: "Franklin Roosevelt . . . wanted to hear Admiral King argue with Marshall in front of him. He wanted to hear MacArthur argue against Nimitz, and the Air Corps against the Army, and the Navy against all in his presence, so that he would have the option to make the decisions of major strategy in war. He knew that any political leader, no matter how strong, if given only one military position, finds it nearly impossible to go against it. Unfortunately . . . now the president does not get to hear arguments from differing points of view." John Lehman, "U.S. Defense Policy Options: The 1990s and Beyond," The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, September 1991, pp. 199-200. 59. See, e.g., Arthur C. Forster, Jr., "The Essential Need for An Independent Air Force," Air Force Times, 7 May 1990, p. 25. 60. Alexander Hamilton, James Madison, and John Jay, The Federalist, as reprinted in the Great Books of the Western World, Robert M. Hutchins, ed. (Chicago: Encyclopedia Britannica, 1952), XLIII, 163. 61. Shakespeare called ambition "the soldier's virtue." Antony and Cleopatra, Act III, Scene 1, as reprinted in the Great Books of the Western World, Robert M. Hutchins, ed. (Chicago: Encyclopedia Britannica, 1952), XXVII, 327. 62. Samuel P. Huntington, The Soldier and the State (Cambridge: Harvard Univ. Press, 1959), p. 87, said "If the officer corps is originally divided into land, sea, and air elements, and then is unified under the leadership of a single, overall staff and military commander in chief, this change will tend to increase its authority with regard to other institutions of government. It will speak with one voice instead of three. Other groups will not be able to play off one of the officer corps against another." 63. Bruce B. Auster with Robin Knight, "The Pentagon Scramble to Stay Relevant," U.S. News & World Report, 30 December 1991/6 January 1992, p. 52. Despite the Gulf War, defense outlays were scheduled by 1997 to shrink to their lowest percentage of the federal budget since the end of World War II. Sara Collins, "Cutting Up the Military," U.S. News & World Report, 10 February 1992, p. 29. See also John Lancaster, "Aspin Seeks to Double Bush's Defense Cuts," The Washington Post, 27 February 1992, p. A16; and Helen Dewar, "Bush, Mitchell Take Aim at Slashing the Defense Budget," The Washington Post, 17 January 1992, p. B1. 64. Morrison, "Operation Kinder and Gentler," p. 1260. Most revealing, on 1-2 December 1992, the National Defense University at Fort McNair in Washington, D.C., hosted a symposium titled "Non-Traditional Roles for the U.S. Military in the Post-Cold War Era," featuring presentations on disaster relief, refugee evacuation, humanitarian medical care, engineering assistance to infrastructure and environment, counternarcotics, riot control, emergency preparedness, civil unrest, national assistance, etc. 65. Military analyst Harry Summers insists that ROTC is a key reason military coups have not occurred in the United States as they have in other countries. He notes: "ROTC was designed to produce a well-rounded officer corps inculcated with the principles of freedom, democracy, and American values through close contact with civilian students on an open college campus, and through a liberal education taught by a primarily civilian academic faculty. And that's just what has happened." Harry Summers, "Stalking the Wrong Quarry," Washington Times, 7 December 1989, p. F-3. 66. The Army plans to cut ROTC officer acquisitions from 7,778 in 1990 to 5,200 in 1995. See Peter Copeland, "ROTC More Selective in Post-Cold War Era," Washington Times, 27 May 1991, p. 3. 67. David Wood, "A Breed Apart, Volunteer Army Grows Distant from Society," Th e Star Ledger (Newark, N.J.), 24 April 1991, p. 1. 68. The armed services will shrink at least 25% by 1995. Richard Cheney, "U.S. Defense Strategy for An Era of Uncertainty," International Defense Review, 1992, p. 7. But service academy graduates are expected to decline by only 10% during the same period. Eric Schmitt, "Service Academies Grapple With Cold War Thaw," The New York Times, 3 March 1992, p. 12. Just after the Vietnam War, West Point was supplying about 8% of new Army officers, compared to the current 24%, a new study by the congressional General Accounting Office (GAO) suggests. To roll back the officer stream from West Point, the GAO says, enrollment might have to be limited to 2,500 cadets, a 40% drop from today. Larry Gordon, "Changing Cadence at West Point," Los Angeles Times, 25 March 1992, p. 1. 69. See, e.g., Tom Philip, "CSUS May End ROTC Over Anti-Gay Policy," Sacrament o Bee, 15 February 1992, p. 1. 70. As of November 1991, 89 law schools prohibit or restrict on-campus military recruiting. See "Sexual Preference Issue," HQ USAF/JAX Professional Development Update, November 1991, p. 9. Such bans are not legal in most cases. See 10 U.S.C. 2358; and U.S. v. City of Philadelphia, 798 F.2d 81 (3d Cir. 1986). Furthermore, by condoning the exclusion of military recruiters from campuses--billed as "marketplaces of ideas"--these universities legitimized censorship of "politically incorrect" views. 71. An article by journalist David Wood grasped this trend. He quoted an Army officer as stating, "We are isolated--we don't have a lot of exposure to the outside world." Wood goes on to observe: "The nation's 2 million active duty soldiers are a self-contained society, one with its own solemn rituals, its own language, its own system of justice, and even its own system of keeping time. . . .Only a decade ago, life within the confines of a military base might have seemed a spartan existence. But improving the garrison life has been a high priority. As a result, many bases have come to resemble an ideal of small-town America. . . . There is virtually no crime or poverty. Drug addicts and homeless are mere rumors from the outside." David Wood, "Duty, Honor, Isolation: Military More and More a Force Unto Itself," The Star-Ledger (Newark, N.J.) 21 April 1991, p. 1. See also Laura Elliot, "Behind the Lines," The Washingtonian, April 1991, p. 160. 72. Wood, p. 1. 73. Studies indicate that defeat in war may actually increase the likelihood of a military coup. Ekkart Zimmermann, "Toward a Causal Model of Military Coups d'Etat," Armed Forces and Society, 5 (Spring 1979), 399. 74. United States ex rel. Toth v. Quarles, 350 U.S. 11, 17, 76 S.Ct. 1 (1955). Of course, Carl von Clausewitz had put it even better: "The end for which a soldier is recruited, clothed, armed, and trained, the whole object of his sleeping, eating, drinking, and marching, is simply that he should fight at the right place and the right time." On War, Michael Howard and Peter Paret, eds. (Princeton: Princeton Univ. Pres, 1976), p. 95. 75. Barton Gellman, "Strategy for the '90s: Reduce Size and Preserve Strength," The Washington Post, 9 December 1991, p. A10. 76. See, e.g., Brown, "Drugs on the Border: The Role of the Military," p. 50. 77. According to one report, the effort was futile and wasteful: "We're getting so little of the drug traffic for such a great expenditure of effort," lamented one Navy officer; "We're pouring money into the ocean, at a time when resources are scarce." William Matthews, "Drug War Funds Would Shrink Under Budget Proposal," Air Force Times, 17 February 1992, p. 33. 78. John Lancaster reported that proposals to cut Guard and reserve funding "inflame passions on Capitol Hill," causing Congress to resist cutting the part-time forces. "Pentagon Cuts Hill-Favored Targets," The Washington Post, 24 January 1992, p. A6. Art Pine reported that the Guard and reserves "exercise stunning political power and influence, both among state and local governments and in the power centers of Washington." Pine quoted Brookings Institute expert Martin Binkin as saying that the Guard/Reserve lobby "makes the gun lobby led by the National Rifle Association look like amateurs." Art Pine, "In Defense of 2nd Line Defenders," Los Angeles Times, 13 March 1992, p. 1. 79. Former Director of Operations for the Joint Staff, Lieutenant General Thomas Kelly, believed there was simply not enough training time to keep Guard units ready for the kind of highly complex warfare the Army now conducts. He said, "There is nothing on earth harder to teach than the maneuver function in combat." As quoted by Grant Willis, "A New Generation of Warriors," Navy Times, 16 March 1991, p. 12. The motivation of some Guardsmen toward fulfilling their military responsibilities was called into question when up to 80% of the Guardsmen in California units called up for Desert Storm reported for duty unable to meet physical fitness standards. Steve Gibson, "Guards Flunked Fitness," Sacramento Bee, 18 June 1991, p. B1. 80. "Decisive Force," National Military Strategy of the United States (Washington: GPO, 1992), p. 10; "Contingency Forces," National Military Strategy of the United States (Washington: GPO, 1992), p. 23. Secretary of Defense Richard Cheney and Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff Colin Powell testified before the Senate Armed Services Committee on 31 January 1992 that the military of the future "would be smaller and more mobile and flexible. . . . Its likely target would be regional conflicts, in which American firepower might still be needed on short notice." As reported by Eric Schmitt, "Pentagon Says More Budget Cuts Would Hurt Combat Effectiveness," The New York Times, 1 February 1992, p. 9. 81. Military analyst and decorated combat veteran David Hackworth sized up the Guard and Reserves as follows: "Except for the air and Marine combat components, these forces aren't worth the billions paid each year to them. The combat service and support units are great, but there are too many of them." "A Pentagon Dreamland," The Washington Post, 23 February 1992, p. C3. 82. Operation Provide Hope was a two-week humanitarian aid effort involving 64 US Air Force sorties carrying approximately 4.5 million pounds of food and medicine. Michael Smith, "First of Up to 64 Relief Flights Arrives in Kiev," A ir Force Times, 24 February 1992, p. 8. For Baker quotation, see David Hoffman, "Pentagon to Airlift Aid to Republics," The Washington Post, 24 January 1992, p. A1. 83. The Vice Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff also saw the military's future role in non-combat terms. Stating that there was "no plausible scenario" in which the United States would be involved in a military conflict in Europe or with elements of the former Soviet Union, he maintained that the likeliest use of military forces would be to address instability that could arise from migrations by poor peoples of the world to wealthier regions. He envisioned the military's role: "You would like to deal with this on a political and social level. The military's role should be subtle, similar to the role it plays now in Latin America--digging wells, building roads, and teaching the militaries of host nations how to operate under a democratic system. . . . When prevention fails, the military can be called to the more active role of running relief operations like the current one at Guantanamo Bay, Cuba, for fleeing Haitians. Operation Provide Comfort, the giant US military rescue mission to save Kurdish refugees who fled from the Iraqi army to the snow-covered mountains of southeastern Turkey last spring, may have been a precursor of what we can look forward to in the next decade if not the next century." As quoted by William Matthews, "Military Muscle to Shift to Humanitarian Help," Air Force Times, 6 January 1992, p. 14. 84. Leon Hader, "Reforming Israel--Before It's Too Late," Foreign Policy, No. 81 (Winter 1990/91), 111. 85. Richard J. Barnet, "Reflections--The Uses Of Force," The New Yorker, 29 April 1991, p. 82. 86. Charles Lane, "The Newest War," p. 18. 87. Newsweek reported the following incident: When a Marine reconnaissance patrol skirmished with smugglers near the Arizona-Mexico border last December--firing over their heads to disperse them--one colonel near retirement age shook his head. He argued that combat-trained Marines shouldn't be diminishing hard-learned skills by squeezing off warning shots. "That teaches some very bad habits," he said. Bill Torque and Douglas Waller, "Warriors Without War," Newsweek, 19 March 1990, p. 18. 88. Charles Lane, "The Newest War," p. 18. 89. As quoted by David Morrison in the National Journal. This relief operation involved 8,000 sailors and marines tasked to help millions of Bangladeshi survivors of a 30 April 1991 cyclone. See Morrison, "Operation Kinder and Gentler," p. 1260. 90. Barton Gellman, "Strategy for the '90s: Reduce Size and Preserve Strength," The Washington Post, 9 December 1991, p. A10. 91. Shuger, "Pacify the Military," p. 25. 92. Harry Summers, "When Armies Lose Sight of Purpose," Washington Times, 26 December 1991, p. D3. 93. See "Warnings Echo from Jefferson to Eisenhower to Desert Storm," USA Today, 1 March 1991, p. 10A. 94. A caller to a radio talk show typified this view. She stated that while she appreciated the need for a military in case "something like Iraq came up again," she believed that the military ought to be put to work rebuilding the infrastructure and cleaning up the cities instead of "sitting around the barracks." "The Joel Spevak Show," Station WRC, Washington, D.C., 11 March 1992. 95. One example of the dangers of lowering standards to achieve social goals is "Project 100,000." Conceived as a Great Society program, youths with test scores considered unacceptably low were nevertheless allowed to enter the armed forces during the 1966-1972 period. The idea was to give the disadvantaged poor the chance to obtain education and discipline in a military environment, but the results were a fiasco. See Marilyn B. Young, The Vietnam Wars, 1945-1990 (New York: Harper Collins, 1991), p. 320. 96. Richard A. Gabriel, To Serve with Honor (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood, 1982), p. 178. ------------------------------------------------------------------------ Lieutenant Colonel Charles J. Dunlap, Jr., USAF, is the Deputy Staff Judge Advocate, US Central Command, at MacDill AFB, Florida. He is a graduate of St. Joseph's University (Pa.), the Villanova University School of Law, and the Armed Forces Staff College, and he is a Distinguished Graduate of the National War College, Class of 1992. He has taught at the Air Force Judge Advocate General's School, and served tours in Korea and the United Kingdom. In 1987 he was a Circuit Military Judge, First Judicial Circuit, and was subsequently assigned to the Air Staff in the Office of the Judge Advocate General. Lieutenant Colonel Dunlap was recently named by the Judge Advocates' Association as the USAF's Outstanding Career Armed Services Attorney of 1992. The present article is adapted from his National War College student paper that was co-winner of the Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff 1991-92 Strate gy Essay Competition, in which students from all the senior service colleges compete. ------------------------------------------------------------------------ Go to Cumulative Article Index Go to Parameters home page. Reviewed 25 November 1996. Please send comments or corrections to [EMAIL PROTECTED] rlisle.army.mil. ----- Aloha, He'Ping, Om, Shalom, Salaam. Em Hotep, Peace Be, All My Relations. 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