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Aaron Swartz
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For the British actor, see Aaron Swartz (actor). For other people with similar
names, see Aaron Schwartz (disambiguation).
Aaron Swartz
Aaron Swartz profile.jpg
Swartz at a Creative Commons event in December 13, 2008
Born Aaron Hillel Swartz[1]
November 8, 1986
Highland Park, Illinois,[2] U.S.
Died January 11, 2013 (aged 26)
Brooklyn, New York, U.S.
Cause of death Suicide by hanging
Education Stanford University
Occupation Software developer, writer, internet activist
Organization Creative Commons (development), Reddit (co-founder),
Watchdog.net, Open Library, DeadDrop, Progressive Change Campaign Committee,
Demand Progress (co-founder), ThoughtWorks, Tor2web
Title Fellow, Harvard University Edmond J. Safra Center for Ethics
Awards ArsDigita Prize (2000)
American Library Association's James Madison Award (posthumously)
EFF Pioneer Award 2013 (posthumously)
Internet Hall of Fame 2013 (posthumously)
Website aaronsw.com
Aaron Hillel Swartz (November 8, 1986 – January 11, 2013) was an American
computer programmer, entrepreneur, writer, political organizer, and Internet
hacktivist. He was involved in the development of the web feed format RSS,[3]
the Markdown publishing format,[4] the organization Creative Commons,[5] and
the website framework web.py,[6] and joined the social news site Reddit six
months after its founding.[7] He was given the title of co-founder of Reddit by
Y Combinator owner Paul Graham after the formation of Not a Bug, Inc. (a merger
of Swartz's project Infogami and Redbrick Solutions,[8] a company run by Alexis
Ohanian and Steve Huffman). Swartz's work also focused on civic awareness and
activism.[9][10] He helped launch the Progressive Change Campaign Committee in
2009 to learn more about effective online activism. In 2010, he became a
research fellow at Harvard University's Safra Research Lab on Institutional
Corruption, directed by Lawrence Lessig.[11][12] He founded the online group
Demand Progress, known for its campaign against the Stop Online Piracy Act.
In 2011, Swartz was arrested by Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT)
police on state breaking-and-entering charges, after connecting a computer to
the MIT network in an unmarked and unlocked closet, and setting it to download
academic journal articles systematically from JSTOR using a guest user account
issued to him by MIT.[13][14] Federal prosecutors, led by Carmen Ortiz, later
charged him with two counts of wire fraud and eleven violations of the Computer
Fraud and Abuse Act,[15] carrying a cumulative maximum penalty of $1 million in
fines, 35 years in prison, asset forfeiture, restitution, and supervised
release.[16] Swartz declined a plea bargain under which he would have served
six months in federal prison.[17] Two days after the prosecution rejected a
counter-offer by Swartz, he was found dead by suicide in his Brooklyn
apartment.[18][19] In 2013, Swartz was inducted posthumously into the Internet
Hall of Fame.[20]
Contents
1 Early life
1.1 Entrepreneurship
2 Activism
2.1 PACER
2.2 Progressive Change Campaign Committee
2.3 Demand Progress
2.4 Opposition to the Stop Online Piracy Act (SOPA)
2.5 Wikipedia
3 United States v. Aaron Swartz case
3.1 The download
3.2 Arrest and prosecution
4 Death, funeral, and memorial gatherings
4.1 Death
4.2 Funeral and memorial gatherings
5 Response
5.1 US Department of Justice
5.2 Family response
5.3 MIT
5.4 Press
5.5 Internet
5.5.1 Hacks
5.5.2 Petition to the White House
5.6 Commemorations
6 Legacy
6.1 Open Access
6.2 Congress
6.2.1 Congressional investigations
6.2.2 Amendment to Computer Fraud and Abuse Act
6.2.3 Fair Access to Science and Technology Research Act
7 Media
7.1 The Internet's Own Boy: The Story of Aaron Swartz
7.2 Killswitch
7.3 Other films
8 Works
8.1 Specifications
8.2 Software
8.3 Publications
9 Notes
10 See also
11 References
12 External links
12.1 Further reading
12.2 Documentary
Early life
Swartz in 2002 with Lawrence Lessig at the launch party for Creative Commons
File:Aaron Swartz - The Network Transformation.webmPlay media
Swartz describes the nature of the shift from centralized one-to-many systems
to the decentralized many-to-many topology of network communication. San
Francisco, April 2007 (9:29)
Aaron Swartz was born in Highland Park, 25 miles North of Chicago,[2][21] the
child of a Jewish family.[22] He was the eldest child of Susan and Robert
Swartz and brother to Noah and Ben Swartz.[1][23] He was an atheist.[24] His
father founded the software firm Mark Williams Company. At an early age, Swartz
immersed himself in the study of computers, programming, the Internet, and
Internet culture.[25] He attended North Shore Country Day School, a small
private school near Chicago, until 9th grade,[26] when he left high school and
enrolled in courses at Lake Forest College.[27][28]
In 1999, at age 12, he created the website The Info Network, a user-generated
encyclopedia.[29] The site won the ArsDigita Prize, given to young people who
create "useful, educational, and collaborative" noncommercial websites and led
to early recognition of Swartz's nascent talent in coding.[1][30][31] At age
14, he became a member of the working group that authored the RSS 1.0 web
syndication specification. In 2005, he enrolled at Stanford University but left
the school after his first year.[32]
Entrepreneurship
During Swartz's first year at Stanford, he applied to Y Combinator's first
Summer Founders Program, proposing to work on a startup called Infogami, a
flexible content management system designed to create rich and visually
interesting websites[33] or a form of wiki for structured data. After working
on it with co-founder Simon Carstensen over the summer of 2005, Swartz opted
not to return to Stanford, choosing instead to continue to develop and seek
funding for Infogami.[33]
As part of his work on Infogami, Swartz created the web.py web application
framework because he was unhappy with other available systems in the Python
programming language. In early fall of 2005, he worked with his fellow
co-founders of another nascent Y-Combinator firm, Reddit, to rewrite its Lisp
codebase using Python and web.py. Although Infogami's platform was abandoned
after Not a Bug was acquired, Infogami's software was used to support the
Internet Archive's Open Library project and the web.py web framework was used
as basis for many other projects by Swartz and many others.[6]
When Infogami failed to find further funding, Y-Combinator organizers suggested
Infogami merge with Reddit,[34][35] which it did in November 2005, creating a
new firm, Not a Bug, devoted to promoting both products.[34][36] As a result,
Swartz was given the title of co-founder of Reddit. Although both projects
initially struggled, Reddit made large gains in popularity in 2005–2006.
In October 2006, based largely on Reddit's success, Not a Bug was acquired by
Condé Nast Publications, owner of Wired magazine.[25][37] Swartz moved with his
company to San Francisco to continue to work on Reddit for Wired.[25] He found
corporate office life uncongenial and ultimately was asked to resign from the
company.[38] In September 2007, he joined Infogami co-founder Simon Carstensen
to launch a new firm, Jottit, in another attempt to create a markdown-driven
content management system in Python.[39]
Activism
In 2008, Swartz founded Watchdog.net, "the good government site with teeth," to
aggregate and visualize data about politicians.[40][41] That year, he wrote a
widely circulated Guerilla Open Access Manifesto.[42][43][44][45] On December
27, 2010, he filed a Freedom of Information Act (FOIA) request to learn about
the treatment of Chelsea Manning, alleged source for WikiLeaks.[46][47]
PACER
In 2008, Swartz downloaded about 2.7 million federal court documents stored in
the PACER (Public Access to Court Electronic Records) database managed by the
Administrative Office of the United States Courts.[48]
The Huffington Post characterized his actions this way: "Swartz downloaded
public court documents from the PACER system in an effort to make them
available outside of the expensive service. The move drew the attention of the
FBI, which ultimately decided not to press charges as the documents were, in
fact, public."[49]
PACER was charging 8 cents per page for information that Carl Malamud, who
founded the nonprofit group Public.Resource.Org, contended should be free,
because federal documents are not covered by copyright.[50][51] The fees were
"plowed back to the courts to finance technology, but the system [ran] a budget
surplus of some $150 million, according to court reports," reported The New
York Times.[50] PACER used technology that was "designed in the bygone days of
screechy telephone modems ... putting the nation's legal system behind a wall
of cash and kludge."[50] Malamud appealed to fellow activists, urging them to
visit one of 17 libraries conducting a free trial of the PACER system, download
court documents, and send them to him for public distribution.[50]
After reading Malamud's call for action,[50] Swartz used a Perl computer script
running on Amazon cloud servers to download the documents, using credentials
belonging to a Sacramento library.[48] From September 4 to 20, 2008, it
accessed documents and uploaded them to a cloud computing service.[51] He
released the documents to Malamud's organization.[51]
On September 29, 2008,[50] the GPO suspended the free trial, "pending an
evaluation" of the program.[50][51] Swartz's actions were subsequently
investigated by the FBI.[50][51] The case was closed after two months with no
charges filed.[51] Swartz learned the details of the investigation after filing
a FOIA request with the FBI, and described their response as the "usual mess of
confusions that shows the FBI's lack of sense of humor."[51] PACER still
charges per page, but customers using Firefox have the option of saving the
documents for free public access with a plug-in called RECAP.[52]
At a 2013 memorial for Swartz, Malamud recalled their work with PACER. They
brought millions of U.S. District Court records out from behind PACER's "pay
wall", he said, and found them full of privacy violations, including medical
records and the names of minor children and confidential informants.
We sent our results to the Chief Judges of 31 District Courts ... They
redacted those documents and they yelled at the lawyers that filed them ... The
Judicial Conference changed their privacy rules. ... [To] the bureaucrats who
ran the Administrative Office of the United States Courts ... we were thieves
that took $1.6 million of their property. So they called the FBI ... [The FBI]
found nothing wrong ...[53]
A more detailed account of his collaboration with Swartz on the PACER project
appears in an essay on Malamud's website.[54]
Writing in Ars Technica, Timothy Lee,[55] who later made use of the documents
obtained by Swartz as a co-creator of RECAP, offered some insight into
discrepancies in reports on how much data Swartz downloaded: "In a
back-of-the-envelope calculation a few days before the offsite crawl was shut
down, Swartz guessed he got around 25 percent of the documents in PACER. The
New York Times similarly reported Swartz had downloaded "an estimated 20
percent of the entire database". Based on the facts that Swartz downloaded 2.7
million documents while PACER, at the time, contained 500 million, Lee
concluded that Swartz downloaded less than 1% of the database.[48]
Progressive Change Campaign Committee
In 2009, wanting to learn about effective activism, Swartz helped launch the
Progressive Change Campaign Committee.[56] He wrote in his blog: "I spend my
days experimenting with new ways to get progressive policies enacted and
progressive politicians elected."[57] He led the first activism event of his
career with the Progressive Change Campaign Committee, delivering thousands of
"Honor Kennedy" petition signatures to Massachusetts legislators, asking them
to fulfill former Senator Ted Kennedy's last wish by appointing a senator to
vote for healthcare reform.[58]
Demand Progress
In 2010,[59] Swartz co-founded Demand Progress,[60] a political advocacy group
that organizes people online to "take action by contacting Congress and other
leaders, funding pressure tactics, and spreading the word" about civil
liberties, government reform, and other issues.[61]
During academic year 2010–11, Swartz conducted research studies on political
corruption as a Lab Fellow in Harvard University's Edmond J. Safra Research Lab
on Institutional Corruption.[11][12]
Author Cory Doctorow, in his novel Homeland, "drew on advice from Swartz in
setting out how his protagonist could use the information now available about
voters to create a grass-roots anti-establishment political campaign."[62] In
an afterword to the novel, Swartz wrote: "These political hacktivist tools can
be used by anyone motivated and talented enough.... Now it's up to you to
change the system. ... Let me know if I can help."[62]
Opposition to the Stop Online Piracy Act (SOPA)
Swartz in 2012 protesting against the Stop Online Piracy Act (SOPA)
Swartz was involved in the campaign to prevent passage of the Stop Online
Piracy Act (SOPA), which sought to combat Internet copyright violations but was
criticized on the basis that it would make it easier for the U.S. government to
shut down web sites accused of violating copyright and would place intolerable
burdens on Internet providers.[63] After the bill's defeat, Swartz was the
keynote speaker at the F2C:Freedom to Connect 2012 event in Washington, D.C.,
on May 21, 2012. In his speech, "How We Stopped SOPA", he said:
This bill ... shut down whole websites. Essentially, it stopped Americans
from communicating entirely with certain groups....
I called all my friends, and we stayed up all night setting up a website
for this new group, Demand Progress, with an online petition opposing this
noxious bill.... We [got] ... 300,000 signers.... We met with the staff of
members of Congress and pleaded with them.... And then it passed unanimously....
And then, suddenly, the process stopped. Senator Ron Wyden ... put a hold
on the bill.[64][65]
He added, "We won this fight because everyone made themselves the hero of their
own story. Everyone took it as their job to save this crucial freedom."[64][65]
He was referring to a series of protests against the bill by numerous websites,
described by the Electronic Frontier Foundation as the biggest protest in
Internet history, with over 115,000 sites posting their opposition.[citation
needed] Swartz also spoke on the topic at an event organized by
ThoughtWorks.[66]
Wikipedia
Swartz at 2009 Boston Wikipedia Meetup
Swartz participated in Wikipedia since August 2003 under the username
AaronSw.[67] In 2006, he ran unsuccessfully for the Wikimedia Foundation's
Board of Trustees.[68]
In 2006, Swartz wrote an analysis of how Wikipedia articles are written, and
concluded that the bulk of its content came from tens of thousands of
occasional contributors, or "outsiders,” each of whom made few other
contributions to the site, while a core group of 500 to 1,000 regular editors
tended to correct spelling and other formatting errors.[69] He said: "The
formatters aid the contributors, not the other way around."[69][70] His
conclusions, based on the analysis of edit histories of several randomly
selected articles, contradicted the opinion of Wikipedia co-founder Jimmy
Wales, who believed the core group of regular editors provided most of the
content while thousands of others contributed to formatting issues. Swartz came
to his conclusions by counting the number of characters editors added to
particular articles, while Wales counted the total number of edits.[69]
United States v. Aaron Swartz case
Main article: United States v. Aaron Swartz
See also: § Open Access, and JSTOR
According to state and federal authorities, Swartz used JSTOR, a digital
repository,[71] to download a large number[ii] of academic journal articles
through MIT's computer network over the course of a few weeks in late 2010 and
early 2011. Visitors to MIT's "open campus" were authorized to access JSTOR
through its network;[72] Swartz, as a research fellow at Harvard University,
also had a JSTOR account.[15]
The download
On September 25, 2010, the IP address 18.55.6.215, part of the MIT network,
began sending hundreds of PDF download requests per minute to the JSTOR
website, enough to slow the site's performance.[73] This prompted a block of
the IP address. In the morning, another IP address, also from within the MIT
network, began sending more PDF download requests, resulting in a temporary
block on the firewall level of all MIT servers in the entire 18.0.0.0/8 range.
A JSTOR employee emailed MIT on September 29, 2010:
Note that this was an extreme case. We typically suspend just one
individual IP at a time and do that relatively infrequently (perhaps 6 on a
busy day, from 7000+ institutional subscribers). In this case, we saw a
performance hit on the live site, which I have only seen about 3 or 4 times in
my 5 years here. The pattern used was to create a new session for each PDF
download or every few, which was terribly efficient, but not terribly subtle.
In the end, we saw over 200K sessions in one hour's time during the peak.
— NAME REDACTED, JSTOR[74]
According to authorities, Swartz downloaded the documents through a laptop
connected to a networking switch in a controlled-access wiring closet at
MIT.[14][15][75][76][77] The closet's door was kept unlocked, according to
press reports.[72][78][79] When it was discovered, a video camera was placed in
the room to record Swartz; his computer was left untouched. Recording was
stopped once Swartz was identified; but rather than pursue a civil lawsuit
against him, JSTOR reached a settlement with him in June 2011 where he
surrendered the downloaded data.[80][81]
On July 30, 2013, JSTOR released 300 partially redacted documents used as
incriminating evidence against Swartz, originally sent to the United States
Attorney's Office in response to subpoenas in the case United States v. Aaron
Swartz.[82]
(The following images are all excerpts from the 3,461-page PDF document.)
"Root Cause Analysis" Report (side 1), showing a descriptive timeline of
events from September 25, 2010, until December 26, 2010.[83]
"Root Cause Analysis" Report (side 2), showing JSTOR response and incident
resolution procedures.[84]
Email sent from JSTOR to Stephan, Heymann (USAMA), estimating 3.5 million
PDF files had been downloaded.[85]
Email describing PDF download activity snapshots (see next images in
gallery)[86]
Describes PDF download activity, from JSTOR's databases to MIT servers,
between November 1 and December 27.[87]
PDF activity, from JSTOR to MIT, between January 1 to 15.[88]
Arrest and prosecution
On the night of January 6, 2011, Swartz was arrested near the Harvard campus by
MIT police and a Secret Service agent, and arraigned in Cambridge District
Court on two state charges of breaking and entering with intent to commit a
felony.[13][14][77][89][90]
On July 11, 2011, he was indicted by a federal grand jury on charges of wire
fraud, computer fraud, unlawfully obtaining information from a protected
computer, and recklessly damaging a protected computer.[15][91]
On November 17, 2011, Swartz was indicted by a Middlesex County Superior Court
grand jury on state charges of breaking and entering with intent, grand
larceny, and unauthorized access to a computer network.[92][93] On December 16,
2011, state prosecutors filed a notice that they were dropping the two original
charges,[14] and the charges listed in the November 17, 2011 indictment were
dropped on March 8, 2012.[94] According to a spokesperson for the Middlesex
County prosecutor, this was done to avoid impeding a federal prosecution headed
by Stephen P. Heymann, supported by evidence provided by Secret Service agent
Michael S. Pickett.[95][94]
On September 12, 2012, federal prosecutors filed a superseding indictment
adding nine more felony counts, increasing Swartz's maximum criminal exposure
to 50 years of imprisonment and $1 million in fines.[15][96][97] During plea
negotiations with Swartz's attorneys, the prosecutors offered to recommend a
sentence of six months in a low-security prison if Swartz pled guilty to 13
federal crimes. Swartz and his lead attorney rejected the deal, opting instead
for a trial where prosecutors would be forced to justify their pursuit of
him.[98][99]
The federal prosecution involved what was characterized by numerous critics
(such as former Nixon White House counsel John Dean) as an "overcharging"
13-count indictment and "overzealous", "Nixonian" prosecution for alleged
computer crimes, brought by then U.S. Attorney for Massachusetts Carmen
Ortiz.[100]
Swartz died by suicide on January 11, 2013.[101] After his death, federal
prosecutors dropped the charges.[102][103] On December 4, 2013, due to a
Freedom of Information Act suit by the investigations editor of Wired magazine,
several documents related to the case were released by the Secret Service,
including a video of Swartz entering the MIT network closet.[104]
Death, funeral, and memorial gatherings
External video
video icon Aaron Swartz Memorial at The Great Hall of Cooper Union, (transcript)
video icon Aaron Swartz Memorial at the Internet Archive, (partial transcript)
video icon DC Memorial: Darrel Issa, Taren Stinebrickner-Kauffman, Alan Grayson
Death
On the evening of January 11, 2013, Swartz's girlfriend, Taren
Stinebrickner-Kauffman, found him dead in his Brooklyn apartment.[72][105][106]
A spokeswoman for New York's Medical Examiner reported that he had hanged
himself.[105][106][107][108] No suicide note was found.[109] Swartz's family
and his partner created a memorial website on which they issued a statement,
saying: "He used his prodigious skills as a programmer and technologist not to
enrich himself but to make the Internet and the world a fairer, better
place".[23]
Days before Swartz's funeral, Lawrence Lessig eulogized his friend and
sometime-client in an essay, Prosecutor as Bully. He decried the
disproportionality of Swartz's prosecution and said, "The question this
government needs to answer is why it was so necessary that Aaron Swartz be
labeled a 'felon'. For in the 18 months of negotiations, that was what he was
not willing to accept."[110] Cory Doctorow wrote, "Aaron had an unbeatable
combination of political insight, technical skill, and intelligence about
people and issues. I think he could have revolutionized American (and
worldwide) politics. His legacy may still yet do so."[111]
Funeral and memorial gatherings
Aaron Swartz Memorial sign at Internet Archive headquarters, San Francisco,
January 24th, 2013
Aaron Swartz Memorial program at Internet Archive headquarters, San Francisco,
January 24th, 2013
Swartz's funeral services were held on January 15, 2013, at Central Avenue
Synagogue in Highland Park, Illinois. Tim Berners-Lee, creator of the World
Wide Web, delivered a eulogy.[112][113][114][115] The same day, The Wall Street
Journal published a story based in part on an interview with
Stinebrickner-Kauffman.[116] She told the Journal that Swartz lacked the money
to pay for a trial and "it was too hard for him to ... make that part of his
life go public" by asking for help. He was also distressed, she said, because
two of his friends had just been subpoenaed and because he no longer believed
that MIT would try to stop the prosecution.[116]
Several memorials followed soon afterward. On January 19, hundreds attended a
memorial at the Cooper Union, speakers at which included
Stinebrickner-Kauffman, open source advocate Doc Searls, Creative Commons'
Glenn Otis Brown, journalist Quinn Norton, Roy Singham of ThoughtWorks, and
David Segal of Demand Progress.[117][118][119] On January 24, there was a
memorial at the Internet Archive headquarters in San Francisco (video[120])
with speakers including Stinebrickner-Kauffman, Alex Stamos, Brewster
Kahle,[121] and Carl Malamud.[122] On February 4, a memorial was held in the
Cannon House Office Building on Capitol Hill;[123][124][125][126] speakers at
this memorial included Senator Ron Wyden and Representatives Darrell Issa, Alan
Grayson, and Jared Polis,[125][126] and other lawmakers in attendance included
Senator Elizabeth Warren and Representatives Zoe Lofgren and Jan
Schakowsky.[125][126] A memorial also took place on March 12 at the MIT Media
Lab.[127]
Swartz's family recommended GiveWell for donations in his memory, an
organization that Swartz admired, had collaborated with and was the sole
beneficiary of his will.[128][129]
Response
US Department of Justice
Carmen M. Ortiz, then US Attorney for the District of Massachusetts, “As a
parent and a sister, I can only imagine the pain felt by the family and friends
of Aaron Swartz, […] I must, however, make clear that this office's conduct was
appropriate in bringing and handling this case.” – official statement, January
16, 2013.[130]
Family response
Aaron's death is not simply a personal tragedy. It is the product of a
criminal justice system rife with intimidation and prosecutorial overreach.
Decisions made by officials in the Massachusetts U.S. Attorney's office and at
MIT contributed to his death.
—Statement by family and partner of Aaron Swartz[131]
On January 12, 2013, Swartz's family and partner issued a statement criticizing
the prosecutors and MIT.[131] Speaking at his son's funeral on January 15,
Robert Swartz said, "Aaron was killed by the government, and MIT betrayed all
of its basic principles."[132]
Tom Dolan, husband of U.S. Attorney for Massachusetts Carmen Ortiz, whose
office prosecuted Swartz's case, replied with criticism of the Swartz family:
"Truly incredible that in their own son's obit they blame others for his death
and make no mention of the 6-month offer."[133] This comment triggered some
criticism; Esquire writer Charlie Pierce replied, "the glibness with which her
husband and her defenders toss off a 'mere' six months in federal prison,
low-security or not, is a further indication that something is seriously out of
whack with the way our prosecutors think these days."[134]
MIT
MIT maintains an open-campus policy along with an "open network."[79][135] Two
days after Swartz's death, MIT President L. Rafael Reif commissioned professor
Hal Abelson to lead an analysis of MIT's options and decisions relating to
Swartz's "legal struggles."[136][137] To help guide the fact-finding stage of
the review, MIT created a website where community members could suggest
questions and issues for the review to address.[138][139]
Swartz's attorneys requested that all pretrial discovery documents be made
public, a move which MIT opposed.[140] Swartz allies have criticized MIT for
its opposition to releasing the evidence without redactions.[141] On July 26,
2013, the Abelson panel submitted a 182-page report to MIT president, L. Rafael
Reif, who authorized its public release on July 30.[142][143][144] The panel
reported that MIT had not supported charges against Swartz and cleared the
institution of wrongdoing. However, its report also noted that despite MIT's
advocacy for open access culture at the institutional level and beyond, the
university never extended that support to Swartz. The report revealed, for
example, that while MIT considered the possibility of issuing a public
statement about its position on the case, such a statement never
materialized.[145]
Press
Aaron Swartz mural by Brooklyn graffiti artist BAMN
The Huffington Post reported that "Ortiz has faced significant backlash for
pursuing the case against Swartz, including a petition to the White House to
have her fired."[146] Other news outlets reported similarly.[147][148][149]
Reuters news agency called Swartz "an online icon" who "help[ed] to make a
virtual mountain of information freely available to the public, including an
estimated 19 million pages of federal court documents."[150] The Associated
Press (AP) reported that Swartz's case "highlights society's uncertain,
evolving view of how to treat people who break into computer systems and share
data not to enrich themselves, but to make it available to others,"[63] and
that JSTOR's lawyer, former U.S. Attorney for the Southern District of New York
Mary Jo White, had asked the lead prosecutor to drop the charges.[63]
As discussed by editor Hrag Vartanian in Hyperallergic, Brooklyn, New York
muralist BAMN ("By Any Means Necessary") created a mural of Swartz.[151]
"Swartz was an amazing human being who fought tirelessly for our right to a
free and open Internet," the artist explained. "He was much more than just the
'Reddit guy'."
Speaking on April 17, 2013, Yuval Noah Harari described Swartz as "the first
martyr of the Freedom of Information movement". However, according to Harari,
Swartz's stance did not illustrate the belief in the freedom of persons or
speech, but stemmed from the increasing belief among the young generation that
above anything else, information should be free.[152]
Aaron Swartz's legacy has been reported as strengthening the open access to
scholarship movement. In Illinois, his home state, Swartz's influence led state
university faculties to adopt policies in favor of open access.[153]
James Fallows, writing in The Atlantic, offers a short eulogy.[154]
Internet
Hacks
On January 13, 2013, members of Anonymous hacked two websites on the MIT
domain, replacing them with tributes to Swartz that called on members of the
Internet community to use his death as a rallying point for the open access
movement. The banner included a list of demands for improvements in the U.S.
copyright system, along with Swartz's Guerilla Open Access Manifesto.[155] On
the night of January 18, 2013, MIT's e-mail system was taken offline for ten
hours.[156] On January 22, e-mail sent to MIT was redirected by hackers Aush0k
and TibitXimer to the Korea Advanced Institute of Science & Technology. All
other traffic to MIT was redirected to a computer at Harvard University that
was publishing a statement headed "R.I.P Aaron Swartz,"[157] with text from a
2009 posting by Swartz,[158] accompanied by a chiptune version of "The
Star-Spangled Banner". MIT regained full control after about seven hours.[159]
In the early hours of January 26, 2013, the U.S. Sentencing Commission website,
USSC.gov, was hacked by Anonymous.[160][161] The home page was replaced with an
embedded YouTube video, Anonymous Operation Last Resort. The video statement
said Swartz "faced an impossible choice".[162][163] A hacker downloaded
"hundreds of thousands" of scientific-journal articles from a Swiss publisher's
website and republished them on the open Web in Swartz's honor a week before
the first anniversary of his death.[164]
Petition to the White House
See also: Carmen Ortiz and Stephen Heymann
After Swartz's death, more than 50,000 people signed an online petition[165] to
the White House calling for the removal of Ortiz, "for overreach in the case of
Aaron Swartz."[166] A similar petition[167] was submitted calling for
prosecutor Stephen Heymann's firing.[168][169] In January 2015, two years after
Swartz's death, the White House declined both petitions.[170]
Commemorations
External video
video icon IHoF Induction Ceremony – Aaron Swartz on YouTube
On August 3, 2013, Swartz was posthumously inducted into the Internet Hall of
Fame.[20] There was a hackathon held in Swartz' memory around the date of his
birthday in 2013.[171][172] Over the weekend of November 8–10, 2013, inspired
by Swartz's work and life, a second annual hackathon was held in at least 16
cities around the world.[173][174][175] Preliminary topics worked on at the
2013 Aaron Swartz Hackathon[176] were privacy and software tools, transparency,
activism, access, legal fixes, and a low-cost book scanner.[177] In January
2014, Lawrence Lessig led a walk across New Hampshire in honor of Swartz,
rallying for campaign finance reform.[178][179]
Memorial site: Remember Aaron Swartz.[180]
“Aaron Swartz made our world more free. Be Free, Internet. Thank you, Aaron,
for what you gave us.” – public.resource.org.[181]
Mark Bernstein.[182]
Henry Farrell, “Remembering Aaron Swartz.”[183]
Quinn Norton, “My Aaron Swartz, whom I loved.”[184]
In 2017, the Turkish-Dutch artist Ahmet Öğüt commemorated Swartz through a work
entitled "Information Power to The People" and depicting his bust.[185]
A sculpture of Aaron Swartz entitled Information Power to The People created by
Ahmet Öğüt
A clay statue of Aaron Swartz at the Internet Archive
Legacy
Open Access
See also: § United States v. Aaron Swartz case
A long-time supporter of open access, Swartz wrote in his Guerilla Open Access
Manifesto:[44]
The world's entire scientific ... heritage ... is increasingly being
digitized and locked up by a handful of private corporations....
The Open Access Movement has fought valiantly to ensure that scientists do
not sign their copyrights away but instead ensure their work is published on
the Internet, under terms that allow anyone to access it.
Supporters of Swartz responded to news of his death with an effort called
#PDFTribute[186] to promote Open Access.[187][188] On January 12, Eva Vivalt, a
development economist at the World Bank, began posting her academic articles
online using the hashtag #pdftribute as a tribute to Swartz.[188][189][190]
Scholars posted links to their works.[191] The story of Aaron Swartz has
exposed the topic of open access to scientific publications to wider
audiences.[192][193] In the wake of Aaron Swartz, many institutions and
personalities have campaigned for open access to scientific knowledge.[194]
Swartz's death prompted calls for more open access to scholarly data (e.g.,
open science data).[195][196] The Think Computer Foundation and the Center for
Information Technology Policy (CITP) at Princeton University announced
scholarships awarded in memory of Aaron Swartz.[197] In 2013, Swartz was
posthumously awarded the American Library Association's James Madison Award for
being an "outspoken advocate for public participation in government and
unrestricted access to peer-reviewed scholarly articles."[198][199] In March,
the editor and editorial board of the Journal of Library Administration
resigned en masse, citing a dispute with the journal's publisher,
Routledge.[200] One board member wrote of a "crisis of conscience about
publishing in a journal that was not open access" after the death of Aaron
Swartz.[201][202] In 2002, Swartz had stated that when he died, he wanted all
the contents of his hard drives made publicly available.[203][204]
Congress
Several members of the U.S. House of Representatives – Republican Darrell Issa
and Democrats Jared Polis and Zoe Lofgren – all on the House Judiciary
Committee, have raised questions regarding the government's handling of the
case. Calling the charges against him "ridiculous and trumped up," Polis said
Swartz was a "martyr", whose death illustrated the need for Congress to limit
the discretion of federal prosecutors.[205] Speaking at a memorial for Swartz
on Capitol Hill, Issa said
Ultimately, knowledge belongs to all the people of the world.... Aaron
understood that.... Our copyright laws were created for the purpose of
promoting useful works, not hiding them.
Massachusetts Democratic Senator Elizabeth Warren issued a statement saying
"[Aaron's] advocacy for Internet freedom, social justice, and Wall Street
reform demonstrated ... the power of his ideas ..."[206] In a letter to
Attorney General Eric Holder,[207] Texas Republican Senator John Cornyn asked,
"On what basis did the U.S. Attorney for the District of Massachusetts conclude
that her office's conduct was 'appropriate'?" and "Was the prosecution of Mr.
Swartz in any way retaliation for his exercise of his rights as a citizen under
the Freedom of Information Act?"[208][209][210]
Congressional investigations
Issa, who chaired the House Committee on Oversight and Government Reform,
announced that he would investigate the Justice Department's actions in
prosecuting Swartz.[205] In a statement to The Huffington Post, he praised
Swartz's work toward "open government and free access to the people." Issa's
investigation has garnered some bipartisan support.[206]
On January 28, 2013, Issa and ranking committee member Elijah Cummings
published a letter to U.S. Attorney General Holder, questioning why federal
prosecutors had filed the superseding indictment.[97][211] On February 20, WBUR
reported that Ortiz was expected to testify at an upcoming Oversight Committee
hearing about her office's handling of the Swartz case.[212] On February 22,
Associate Deputy Attorney General Steven Reich conducted a briefing for
congressional staffers involved in the investigation.[213][214] They were told
that Swartz's Guerilla Open Access Manifesto played a role in prosecutorial
decision-making.[43][213][214] Congressional staffers left this briefing
believing that prosecutors thought Swartz had to be convicted of a felony
carrying at least a short prison sentence in order to justify having filed the
case against him in the first place.[213][214]
Excoriating the Department of Justice as the "Department of Vengeance",
Stinebrickner-Kauffman told the Guardian that the DOJ had erred in relying on
Swartz's Guerilla Open Access Manifesto as an accurate indication of his
beliefs by 2010. "He was no longer a single issue activist," she said. "He was
into lots of things, from healthcare, to climate change to money in
politics."[43]
On March 6, Holder testified before the Senate Judiciary Committee that the
case was "a good use of prosecutorial discretion."[215] Stinebrickner-Kauffman
issued a statement in reply, repeating and amplifying her claims of
prosecutorial misconduct. Public documents, she wrote, reveal that prosecutor
Stephen Heymann "instructed the Secret Service to seize and hold evidence
without a warrant... lied to the judge about that fact in written briefs...
[and] withheld exculpatory evidence... for over a year," violating his legal
and ethical obligations to turn such evidence over to the defense.[216] On
March 22, Senator Al Franken wrote Holder a letter expressing concerns, writing
that "charging a young man like Mr. Swartz with federal offenses punishable by
over 35 years of federal imprisonment seems remarkably aggressive –
particularly when it appears that one of the principal aggrieved parties ...
did not support a criminal prosecution."[217]
Amendment to Computer Fraud and Abuse Act
Main article: Aaron's Law
Wikisource has original text related to this article:
Rep Zoe Lofgren Introduces Bipartisan Aaron's Law
In 2013, Rep. Zoe Lofgren (D-Calif.) introduced a bill, Aaron's Law (H.R. 2454,
S. 1196[218]) to exclude terms of service violations from the 1986 Computer
Fraud and Abuse Act and from the wire fraud statute.[219]
Lawrence Lessig wrote of the bill, "this is a critically important change....
The CFAA was the hook for the government's bullying.... This law would remove
that hook. In a single line: no longer would it be a felony to breach a
contract."[220] Professor Orin Kerr, a specialist in the nexus between computer
law and criminal law, wrote that he had been arguing for precisely this sort of
reform of the Act for years.[221] The ACLU, too, has called for reform of the
CFAA to "remove the dangerously broad criminalization of online activity."[222]
The EFF has mounted a campaign for these reforms.[223] Lessig's inaugural Chair
lecture as Furman Professor of Law and Leadership was entitled Aaron's Laws:
Law and Justice in a Digital Age; he dedicated the lecture to
Swartz.[224][225][226][227]
The Aaron's Law bill stalled in committee. Brian Knappenberger alleges this was
due to Oracle Corporation's financial interest in maintaining the status
quo.[228]
Fair Access to Science and Technology Research Act
The Fair Access to Science and Technology Research Act (FASTR) is a bill that
would mandate earlier public release of taxpayer-funded research. FASTR has
been described as "The Other Aaron's Law."[229]
Senator Ron Wyden (D-Ore.) and Senator John Cornyn (R-Tex.) introduced the
Senate version, in 2013 and again in 2015, while the bill was introduced to the
House by Reps. Zoe Lofgren (D-Calif.), Mike Doyle (D-Pa.) and Kevin Yoder
(R-Kans.). Senator Wyden wrote of the bill, "the FASTR act provides that access
to taxpayer funded research should never be hidden behind a paywall."[230]
While the legislation had not passed as of October 2015, it helped to prompt
some motion toward more open access on the part of the US administration.
Shortly after the bill's original introduction, the Office of Science and
Technology Policy directed "each Federal agency with over $100 million in
annual conduct of research and development expenditures to develop a plan to
support increased public access to the results of research funded by the
Federal Government."[231]
Media
Swartz has been featured in various works of art and has posthumously received
dedications from numerous artists. In 2013, Kenneth Goldsmith dedicated his
"Printing out the Internet" exhibition to Swartz.[232][233] The fate of Aaron
Swartz was also featured in conservative filmmaker Dinesh D'Souza's 2014
documentary America: Imagine the World Without Her, wherein D'Souza compares
Swartz's prosecution to his own conviction for violating campaign finance laws,
and alleges that both cases exemplify selective, overzealous
prosecution.[234][235] There are also dedicated biographical films for Aaron:
The Internet's Own Boy: The Story of Aaron Swartz
Main article: The Internet's Own Boy: The Story of Aaron Swartz
On January 11, 2014, marking the first anniversary of his death, a preview was
released of The Internet's Own Boy: The Story of Aaron Swartz,[236] a
documentary about Swartz, the NSA and SOPA.[237][238] The film was officially
released at the January 2014 Sundance Film Festival.[239] Democracy Now!
covered the release of the documentary, as well as Swartz's life and legal
case, in a sprawling interview with director Brian Knappenberger, Swartz's
father, brother, and his attorney.[240] The documentary is released under a
Creative Commons License;[241][242] it debuted in theaters and on-demand in
June 2014.[243]
Mashable called the documentary "a powerful homage to Aaron Swartz". Its debut
at Sundance received a standing ovation. Mashable printed, "With the help of
experts, The Internet's Own Boy makes a clear argument: Swartz unjustly became
a victim of the rights and freedoms for which he stood."[244] The Hollywood
Reporter described it as a "heartbreaking" story of a "tech wunderkind
persecuted by the US government", and a must-see "for anyone who knows enough
to care about the way laws govern information transfer in the digital age".[245]
Killswitch
Main article: Killswitch (film)
In October 2014, Killswitch, a documentary film featuring Aaron Swartz, as well
as Lawrence Lessig, Tim Wu, and Edward Snowden, received its world premiere at
the Woodstock Film Festival, where it won the award for Best Editing. The film
focuses on Swartz's role in advocating for internet freedoms.[246][247]
In February 2015, Killswitch was invited to screen at the Capitol Visitor's
Center in Washington, D.C. by Congressman Alan Grayson. The event was held on
the eve of the Federal Communications Commission's historic decision on Net
Neutrality. Congressman Grayson, Lawrence Lessig, and Free Press CEO Craig
Aaron spoke about Swartz and his fight on behalf of a free and open Internet at
the event.[248][249]
Congressman Grayson states that Killswitch is "one of the most honest accounts
of the battle to control the Internet – and access to information itself."[248]
Richard von Busack of the Metro Silicon Valley writes of Killswitch, "Some of
the most lapidary use of found footage this side of The Atomic Café".[246] Fred
Swegles of the Orange County Register remarks, "Anyone who values unfettered
access to online information is apt to be captivated by Killswitch, a gripping
and fast-paced documentary."[247] Kathy Gill of GeekWire asserts that
"Killswitch is much more than a dry recitation of technical history. Director
Ali Akbarzadeh, producer Jeff Horn, and writer Chris Dollar created a
human-centered story. A large part of that connection comes from Lessig and his
relationship with Swartz."[250]
Other films
Patriot of the Web is an independent biographical film about Aaron Swartz,
written and directed by Darius Burke. The film was released on September 15,
2019, onto YouTube.[251][252] Actor Shawn Mcclintock plays Aaron
Swartz.[253][254][non-primary source needed] The film had a limited video on
demand release in December 2017 on Reelhouse[255] and in January 2018 on
Pivotshare.[256]
Another biographical film about Swartz, Think Aaron, is being developed by HBO
Films.[257]
Works
Specifications
Markdown: Swartz was a major contributor to John Gruber's Markdown,[4][258]
a lightweight markup language for generating HTML, and author of its html2text
translator. The syntax for Markdown was influenced by Swartz's earlier atx
language (2002),[259] which today is primarily remembered for its syntax for
specifying headers, known as atx-style headers:[260] Markdown itself remains in
widespread use, with websites such as Reddit and GitHub using it.
RDF/XML at W3C: In 2001, Swartz joined the RDFCore working group at the
World Wide Web Consortium (W3C),[261] where he authored RFC 3870,
Application/RDF+XML Media Type Registration. The document described a new media
type, "RDF/XML", designed to support the Semantic Web.[262]
Software
DeadDrop: In 2011–2012, Swartz, Kevin Poulsen, and James Dolan designed and
implemented DeadDrop, a system that allows anonymous informants to send
electronic documents without fear of disclosure. In May 2013, the first
instance of the software was launched by The New Yorker under the name
Strongbox.[263][264][265] The Freedom of the Press Foundation has since taken
over development of the software, which has been renamed SecureDrop.[266]
Tor2web: In 2008,[267] Swartz worked with Virgil Griffith to design and
implement Tor2web, an HTTP proxy for Tor-hidden services. The proxy was
designed to provide easy access to Tor from a basic web browser.[268][269] The
software is now maintained by Giovanni Pellerano within the GlobaLeaks project.
Publications
Swartz, Aaron; Hendler, James (October 2001). "The Semantic Web: A network
of content for the digital city". Proceedings of the Second Annual Digital
Cities Workshop. Kyoto, JP: Blogspace.
Swartz, Aaron (January–February 2002). "MusicBrainz: A Semantic Web
service" (PDF). IEEE Intelligent Systems. 17 (1): 76–77. CiteSeerX
10.1.1.380.9338. doi:10.1109/5254.988466. ISSN 1541-1672.
Gruber, John; Swartz, Aaron (December 2004). "Markdown definition". Daring
Fireball. Archived from the original on April 2, 2004.
Swartz, Aaron (July 2008). "Guerilla Open Access Manifesto".
Swartz, Aaron; Hendler, James (2009). Building programmable Web sites.
S.F.: Morgan & Claypool. ISBN 978-1-59829-920-5.
Swartz, Aaron (Interviewee). We can change the world (Video). Archived from
the original on December 21, 2021 – via YouTube.
Swartz, Aaron (Speaker) (May 21, 2012). Keynote address at Freedom To
Connect 2012: How we stopped SOPA (Video). D.C. Archived from the original on
December 21, 2021 – via YouTube.
Swartz, Aaron (February 2013) [2009]. "Aaron Swartz's A Programmable Web:
An Unfinished Work". Synthesis Lectures on the Semantic Web: Theory and
Technology (open access PDF). Morgan & Claypool Publishers. 3 (2): 1–64.
doi:10.2200/S00481ED1V01Y201302WBE005. Lay summary. "To Dan Connolly, who not
only created the Web but found time to teach it to me."
Swartz, Aaron; Lucchese, Adriano (November 2014). "Raw Thought, Raw Nerve:
Inside the Mind of Aaron Swartz" (open access PDF/ePub). New York City:
Discovery Publisher.
Swartz, Aaron (January 2016). The Boy Who Could Change the World: The
Writings of Aaron Swartz. The New Press. OL 25886237M.
Notes
^ Swartz has been identified as a cofounder of Reddit, but the title is a
source of controversy. With the merger of Infogami and Reddit, Swartz became a
co-owner and director of parent company Not A Bug, Inc., along with Reddit
cofounders Steve Huffman and Alexis Ohanian.[270] Swartz has been referred to
as "cofounder" in the press and by investor Paul Graham (who recommended the
merger); Ohanian describes him as "co-owner".[36][271]
^ The MIT network administration office told MIT police that "approximately 70
gigabytes of data had been downloaded, 98% of which was from JSTOR."[14] The
first federal indictment alleged "approximately 4.8 million articles", "1.7
million" of which "were made available by independent publishers for purchase
through JSTOR's Publisher Sales Service."[15] The subsequent DOJ press release
alleged "over four million articles". The superseding indictment removed the
estimates and instead characterized the amount as "a major portion of the total
archive in which JSTOR had invested."[15]
See also
Scholia has a profile for Aaron Swartz (Q302817).
Alexandra Elbakyan
List of Wikipedia people
Sci-Hub
Shadow library
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External links
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guidelines. Please improve this article by removing excessive or inappropriate
external links, and converting useful links where appropriate into footnote
references. (June 2020) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
Aaron Swartz
at Wikipedia's sister projects
Media from Commons
News from Wikinews
Quotations from Wikiquote
Texts from Wikisource
Data from Wikidata
Official website Edit this at Wikidata
Aaron Swartz's Wikipedia user page
Github.com/aaronsw (Aaron Swartz)
Aaron Swartz on Twitter Edit this at Wikidata
Remembrances (2013– ), with obituary and official statement from family and
partner
The Internet's Own Boy: The Story of Aaron Swartz, The Documentary Network,
June 29, 2014, a film by Brian Knappenberger – Luminant Media
The Aaron Swartz Collection at Internet Archive (2013– ) (podcasts, e-mail
correspondence, other materials)
Aaron Swartz at IMDb
Posting about Swartz as Wikipedia contributor Archived January 13, 2018, at
the Wayback Machine (2013), at The Wikipedian
Case Docket: US v. Swartz
Report to the President: MIT and the Prosecution of Aaron Swartz
JSTOR Evidence in United States vs. Aaron Swartz – A collection of
documents and events from JSTOR's perspective. Hundreds of emails and other
documents they provided the government concerning the case.
Federal law enforcement documents about Aaron Swartz, released under the
Freedom of Information Act
Further reading
External video
video icon Presentation by Justin Peters on The Idealist, June 11, 2016, C-SPAN
Nanos, Janelle (January 2014). "Losing Aaron". Boston.
Peters, Justin (2016). The Idealist: Aaron Swartz and the Rise of Free
Culture on the Internet. Scribner. ISBN 978-1476767727. Biography of Swartz.
Poulsen, Kevin. "MIT Moves to Intervene in Release of Aaron Swartz's Secret
Service File." Wired. July 18, 2013.
Documentary
Brian Knappenberger (Producer and Director), The Internet's Own Boy: The
Story of Aaron Swartz. Participant Media: 2014. Via The Internet Archive,
www.archive.org/ Run time: 105 minutes.
Ali Akbarzadeh (Director), Killswitch: The Battle to Control the Internet,
Akorn Entertainment: 2014
