>From Rick Reis, Ph.D./Stanford University.... Mike Nolan
Reminder: You can comment on this or any past posting by going to: = http://amps-tools.mit.edu/tomprofblog/ -------------------------------------------------------------------------= -------------------------------------- "In general, students capture only 20-40 percent of a lecture's main = ideas in their notes (Kiewra, 2002, p. 72). Without reviewing the = lecture material, students remember less than 10 percent after three = weeks (Bligh, 2000, p. 40). All instructors hope that their lectures = will be the exception, but these numbers present a clear challenge: How = can we guarantee that students learn and remember what we teach? How do = we create and deliver lectures that stay with students long past the = last few minutes of class? In this newsletter we take up this challenge, = by considering how students attend to, make sense of, and absorb new = information." ---------------------------------- * * * * * TOMORROW'S PROFESSOR(SM) MAILING LIST desk-top faculty development one hundred times a year Over 25,000 subscribers Over 775 postings Over 650 academic institutions Over 100 countries Sponsored by THE STANFORD UNIVERSITY CENTER FOR TEACHING AND LEARNING http://ctl.stanford.edu An archive of all past postings (with a two week delay) = can be found at: http://ctl.stanford.edu/Tomprof/postings.html * * * * * Folks: The posting below looks at, well actually the title speaks for itself. = It is from the newsletter, Speaking of Teaching, produced by the Center = for Teaching and Learning (CTL), Stanford University -, = http://ctl.stanford.edu/Newsletter/ Winter 2005, Vol. 14, No.1. = Speaking of Teaching is compiled and edited by CTL Associate Director = Mariatte Denman at [mdenman@ stanford.edu.] Reprinted with permission. Regards, Rick Reis [EMAIL PROTECTED] UP NEXT: Birthright Tomorrow's Teaching and Learning -------------------------------- 2,958 words = --------------------------------- How to Create Memorable Lectures In general, students capture only 20-40 percent of a lecture's main = ideas in their notes (Kiewra, 2002, p. 72). Without reviewing the = lecture material, students remember less than 10 percent after three = weeks (Bligh, 2000, p. 40). All instructors hope that their lectures = will be the exception, but these numbers present a clear challenge: How = can we guarantee that students learn and remember what we teach? How do = we create and deliver lectures that stay with students long past the = last few minutes of class? In this newsletter we take up this challenge, = by considering how students attend to, make sense of, and absorb new = information. The Learning Process: From Attention to Comprehension to Integration Cognitive theories describe three phases of the learning process (see = Schneider for an extensive discussion of theories). In the first phase, = we decide what to attend to. We cannot notice everything that is going = on in our environment, so we orient our attention selectively. In the = classroom, we hope that students are attending to us, but many things = compete for their attention. If we want students to learn, we need to = capture their attention. In the second step of learning, we organize what we observe into a = coherent mental pattern or structure. In the classroom, students are = constantly interpreting what you say, what they read on the blackboard, = and what they see on slides. Students must decide how to organize this = information in their own minds (and notes). The more you can provide = students with a framework for interpreting lecture material, the easier = it is for them to understand new ideas. These first two phases of learning create a short-term memory for new = information. To fully "own" new information in long-term memory, we need = to rehearse the new information and connect it to existing frameworks of = knowledge. This gives new information meaning beyond the particular = learning occasion, and makes it easier to retrieve. This final phase of = learning begins in the classroom, with review and application, and = continues out of the classroom through well-crafted assignments. How can you use this information in your lecture? James R. Davis = describes a simple approach to maximizing the first two stages of = learning: "Get the students' attentionStell the students what to pay = attention to... and don't overload the system" (p. 141). These three = strategies address the initial learning environment- the classroom-and = can help a lecturer communicate material effectively. To these basic = strategies, we add one more strategy that takes into account the final = stage of learning: Give students the opportunity to review and apply = lecture material, both in class and between classes. This strategy = guarantees that students will fully integrate the material and make the = knowledge their own-and that is what makes a lecture truly memorable. Get Students' Attention Every lecturer hopes that the pure beauty and intrigue of ideas and = information will captivate students. Before students engage with ideas, = however, they must first be engaged by the instructor. Therefore, like = any public speaker, the lecturer's first task is to capture the = audience's attention. A lecturer must connect with students and draw = them into the lecture. This rapport can be accomplished in a variety of ways, from = attention-grabbing gimmicks to highly thoughtful approaches. Most = instructors are wary of gimmicks; a common concern is that any attempt = to appeal to students' interests will lower the intellectual quality of = a lecture. However, engaging students needn't be at the expense of high = academic standards. As a lecturer, you don't need to be a performer or = an entertainer; you simply need to keep your audience in mind, and find = the most direct way to interest students in your material. One of the most basic and direct ways to attract and keep students' = interest is instructor expressiveness-the use of vocal variation, facial = expression, movement, and gesture. This tactic can be applied to any = lecture content, from Shakespeare to statistics. Students are more = likely to pay attention to instructors who exhibit expressive behaviors, = because expressive instructors are more interesting to attend to and = easier to understand. For this reason, expressiveness enhances = communication and facilitates student comprehension. Students also tend = to interpret an instructor's expressiveness as enthusiasm for the = subject, and enthusiasm in the classroom is contagious. Expressive = behaviors intrigue students, and encourage them to actively consider the = lecture material. For these reasons, expressive behaviors lead to higher = levels of student achievement and satisfaction (R. P. Perry, 1985, = quoted in Murray, p. 192). The famous "Dr. Fox" experiments, first conducted by Ware and Williams = in the mid-seventies, illustrate the effects of instructor = expressiveness (see Murray, 1997). The experiments used six videotaped = lectures, all given by a professional actor assuming the persona of "Dr. = Fox." The topic of each lecture was biochemistry, but the amount of = information in each lecture varied (low, medium, or high). In addition, = lectures were presented with either a low or high level of = "seductiveness." "High seductiveness" was defined in terms of expressive = behavior: the use of movement, gesture, vocal emphasis, humor, and = charisma. "Low seductiveness" was characterized by a flat, = matter-of-fact style. Students who watched the highly expressive lectures performed better on = a multiple-choice recall test than students who watched the less = expressive lectures. This suggests that expressiveness enhances = students' memory for the lecture content. Students who watched the = highly expressive lectures also gave higher ratings to the instructor, = independent of the level of information provided in the lectures. The = authors coined this last finding the "Dr. Fox Effect." Students may give = high ratings to teachers who convey almost no content, but present their = lectures enthusiastically. Lectures can be enjoyable but still fail to = meet important teaching goals. However, as Murray argues, there is no reason to believe that expressive = behaviors "are in any way incompatible with more traditional criteria of = effective teaching, such as content coverage and high academic = standards" (p. 196). To avoid the Dr. Fox Effect, keep in mind that = expressiveness is more about communication than entertainment. The key = teaching goals of each lecture are still to increase students' knowledge = and skills, not to entertain students. Expressiveness is simply a tool = for engaging students with the material, not an end to itself. A good = litmus test for whether expressiveness is effective, rather than merely = entertaining, is whether it invites students to be active, rather than = passive, learners. It is important to ask yourself: Once you have = students' attention, what are you doing with it? Expressiveness can be learned, through training and practice. The Center = for Teaching and Learning provides a number of resources for instructors = looking to develop expressive skills (including class videotaping and = oral communication training). Expressiveness can also be enhanced by the = instructor's own engagement with the material. Even though the material = is familiar to you, you can rediscover its importance and appeal each = time you share it with new students. When we think back to those teachers who captivated our attention during = a lecture, they undoubtedly used different strategies suited to their = individual temperaments, styles, and disciplines. Some may have been = more typically charismatic, and others less showy but deeply passionate = about ideas. Some may have owned the lecture hall physically, acting out = their lectures, while others may have kept us riveted with their ability = to tell a good story. What they probably all shared, however, was = presence. Not stage presence, but presence in the sense of being truly = present: physically, emotionally, and intellectually. The expressiveness = that follows from full presence is a natural attention-grabber-no = gimmicks needed. Direct Students' Attention But even when students pay attention, they may fail to attend to the = most important material in a lecture. Think of how much new content you = share with students in just one lecture. Students need to absorb, = record, and understand the steady flow of auditory and visual = information. To do so, students must listen, view, think, and write, all = at once. The juggling of these activities might explain why students' = notes capture only 20-40 percent of a lecture's content. Because the = content is new to students, it can be difficult for them to identify = which ideas are critical and which are peripheral. How can we help = students attend to the most important information, so that they = understand and remember the key points of each lecture? The solution is to provide students with a framework for each lecture, = so that they can direct their attention to the most important = information. One way to do this is to prepare a study guide for your = course that describes each lecture's objectives, key concepts, and = questions to consider (Schneider, p. 57). A handout with the lecture's = major points will prepare students to listen and look for the central = elements of the lecture. Skeletal lecture handouts, with room for = students' notes, can also help students organize what they hear and see, = and may be more effective than providing students with your full lecture = notes (Kiewra, 2002, p. 72).As you prepare your lecture outlines, aim = for three to five main points in each lecture, with clear links between = each lecture topic and your main points. You can also ask students to answer conceptual questions as they take = notes during lecture. Each part of a lecture can be preceded by a = high-level question that the upcoming information can answer. This = encourages students to interpret and organize lecture content according = to an important and useful conceptual framework. In one study, students = who took notes trying to answer conceptual questions performed better on = a recall test than students who took traditional notes that simply = recorded information (Rickards & McCormick, 1988). During lecture, be as explicit as possible about what students should = focus on. Clearly introduce key concepts and definitions. Identify = important themes as a way for students to sort through the content of = the lecture. Use verbal and visual cues to highlight major points, = categories, and steps of an argument. You can also direct students' = attention to the most important points by asking them to review or = explain those points during class. All of these strategies will help = create a framework for students, so that they can quickly and accurately = identify and understand the core ideas in your lecture. Don't Overload the System Once we have students' attention, we need to consider how quickly = students can process information. Short-term memory requires time to = process the sensory input we receive; students are not sponges and = cannot immediately "absorb" new information. Give students short breaks = throughout lecture to review their notes and ask questions. A short = break that includes students' questions can also give the lecturer an = opportunity to assess student understanding and adjust the remaining = part of the lecture if needed. You can also include a more formal activity or assignment after every = 15-20 minutes of presentation. For example, ask students to summarize or = paraphrase the last few important points, either in their notes or with = the person sitting nearest them. You can then review the points and move = on to the next phase in the lecture. Giving students and yourself a = break has another advantage. The audience's attention in a lecture drops = dramatically after ten minutes of listening (Bligh, 2000, p. 53). = Students can remember most of the first ten minutes, but very little = from the middle part of the lecture. A short break will revitalize the = audience's attention, and students will be much more likely to remember = information from throughout the lecture. A final consideration involves how lecturers present information. = Lecturers are often encouraged to use a wide range of presentation = materials, including audio, video, and written materials. While this can = attract students' attention, it can also overload students' attention. = Cognitive overload occurs when different forms of processing interfere = with each other (Mayer & Moreno, 2003, p. 45). A common example is when = students are presented with an illustration that also includes a written = explanation. Students may be unable to process the information quickly, = because looking at the illustration and reading the text both place = demands on the same sensory channel (vision). Mayer found that replacing = the written explanation with an auditory narrative, which uses another = sensory channel, is more effective. Another common way to overload = attention is to give students two conflicting things to attend to at the = same time (say, a transparency on the overhead and a verbal narrative = that does not directly relate to the overhead). Students must figure out = which sensory channel provides the essential information, and they may = not always guess correctly. You can avoid cognitive overload by = maintaining a reasonable pace in your presentation and by carefully = coordinating your verbal instruction with any other media. Give Students Opportunities to Review and Apply Information becomes solidified in long-term memory when we have = opportunities to retrieve, review, and reflect on that information. As = an instructor, you have two main opportunities to make sure this = happens: 1) Give students time, during lecture, to review and apply = ideas. 2) Give students assignments that encourage them to review their = lecture notes and use the lecture content. Previously, we described how short breaks during a lecture can give = students the opportunity to make sure they have correctly identified and = recorded important information. To go beyond this simple fact-checking, = give students time in lecture to solve a problem or discuss an idea. You = can post the problem or discussion question on a slide at the beginning = of the lecture, so that students attend to the lecture with the = anticipation of applying the information. You can have students tackle = the problem or issue in pairs at the end of the lecture, or work alone = and then vote on a solution or position. You can also create a = think-tank situation by inviting volunteers to talk through their = thought processes as they try to solve the problem or respond to a = question. The full class can then discuss both the process and outcome = of the thought experiment. Of course, your students' learning process does not end in the lecture = hall. You provide a strong foundation for learning during class, but = students typically are overwhelmed by other demands on their time and = thoughts. Students rush from one class to the next, and spend time in = extracurricular activities, athletics, jobs, and socializing. By the end = of the day, any information that is not reviewed may not be accurately = remembered. We can increase students' learning by offering them the opportunity to = review each lecture in a meaningful and timely way. It is not enough to = hope that students will review their notes; create assignments that = encourage or require it. For example, ask students to create a matrix, = flow chart, table, or concept map based on the information presented in = lecture (Titsworth & Kiewra, 2004, p. 450). Give students a problem that = can only be solved using lecture material. Have students prepare a = debate, a student panel, or a position paper on a subject related to = lecture content (Frederick, 2002, p. 60). If an online discussion forum = is part of the course, ask students to respond to questions related to = the most recent lecture. By reviewing, interpreting, and applying = lecture material, students are more likely to build lasting memories and = develop higher-level thinking skills. Students are also more likely to remember information that relates to = ideas or experiences they are already familiar with. You can capitalize = on this phenomenon by using examples from student life, current events, = or popular culture. You can also ask students to generate their own = examples from personal experience in class or as a written assignment. = Whenever possible, tell students how new information relates to previous = lectures in your course. Show students how specific skills can be = applied to real-world problems. Create class activities or assignments = that ask students to fit new information into the overall themes of the = course. For example, have students compare two ideas, synthesize = competing perspectives, or discuss the evolution of one theory to = another. All of these techniques will make it more likely that students = will remember the information from lecture, because students will = integrate the material into already existing knowledge structures and = experiences. Teaching Strategies for Memorable Lectures We have reviewed several teaching strategies that take into = consideration how students learn new information in a lecture setting. = We encourage you to apply these strategies to your own teaching, and = find out what works best for your lecture content and personal teaching = style. We also love to hear about innovative and effective lecturing = strategies on campus. Please share your success stories if you have a = found a particularly helpful way to keep student's attention, increase = student understanding, or improve student performance. You can contact = Mariatte Denman at mdenman@ stanford.edu. Quick and Easy Ideas for Better Lectures Provide students with a framework for each lecture o Aim for three to five main points in each lecture. o Begin the lecture with a high-level question that the upcoming = information can answer. o Prepare a handout of the lecture's main points. o During lecture, be explicit about what students should focus on. Don't overload students o Give students short breaks throughout lecture to review their notes = and ask questions. o Include a formal activity or assignment after every 15-20 minutes of = presentation. o Don't use too many different types of presentation materials at once. o Don't give students two conflicting things to attend to at the same = time. Students are also more likely to remember information that relates to = ideas or experiences they are already familiar with. o Use examples from student life, current events, or popular culture. o Ask students to generate their own examples from personal experience. o Tell students how new information relates to previous lectures in your = course. o Show students how specific skills can be applied to real-world = problems. o Create activities and assignments that ask students to fit new = information into the overall themes of the course. Bibliography Bligh, Donald A. (2000). What's the use of lectures? San Francisco: = Jossey-Bass. Davis, James R. (1993). Better Teaching, More Learning: = Strategies for Success in Postsecondary Settings. Phoeniz, AZ: Oryx = Press. Frederick, Peter J. (2002). "Engaging students actively in large lecture = settings." In Christine A. Stanley and M. Erin Porter. Engaging Large = Lecture Classes. Strategies and Techniques for College Faculty (pp. = 58-66). Bolton,Massachusetts: Anker Publishing Company, Inc. Kiewra, Kenneth A. (2002). "How classroom teachers can help students = learn and teach them how to learn." Theory into Practice, 41 (2), 71-80. Mayer, Richard E., and Roxana Moreno. (2003). "Nine ways to reduce = cognitive load in multimedia learning." Educational Psychologist, 38(1), = 43-52. Murray, Harry G. (1997). "Effective teaching behavior in the college = classroom." In Raymond P. Perry and John C. Smart. Effective Teaching in = Higher Education: Research and Practice (pp. 171-204). New York: Agathon = Press. Rickards, J.P., and C.B. McCormick. (1988). "Effects of interspersed = conceptual pre-questions on note-taking in listening comprehension." = Journal of Educational Psychology, 80, 592-594. Schneider Fuhrmann, Barbara. (1983). A Practical Handbook for College = Teachers. Boston: Little, Brown and Company. This book shows how to = apply the cognitive learning process theories to the classroom with many = well-thought-out examples. Titsworth, B. Scott, and Kenneth A. Kiewra. (2004). "Spoken = organizational lecture cues and student note-taking as facilitators of = student learning." Contemporary Educational Psychology, 29, 447-461. ---------- If we are on another line or away from the phone, please leave your = number, best time to return your call and/or your e-mail address. =20 After hours and weekend phone appointments are available upon request. Sincerely, J. Michael Nolan, Director =20 Rainforest and Reef 501 (c)(3) non-profit *************************************************************************= ************** "Outstanding-Affordable Field Courses in Rainforest & Marine Ecology" "Spanish/Cultural Immersion: Spain, Mexico, Central and South America" Rainforest and Reef 501 (c)(3) non-profit P.O. 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