--- In [email protected], akasha_108 <[EMAIL PROTECTED]> wrote: > > > http://www.al-bab.com/arab/science.htm > (and all this is just from the first link I found. There is much more.) > > Starting around 750 AD, science flourished under the Abbasid caliphs > of Baghdad, gradually spreading its influence as far west as Spain and > eastwards into Central Asia, over a period of more than 600 years. > > By drawing on a variety of texts - Greek, Indian and Persian - and > translating them into Arabic, the early scholars accumulated the > greatest body of scientific knowledge in the world and built on it > through their own discoveries. > > ..... > > > Arab contributions to human civilization are noteworthy. In arithmetic > the style of writing digits from right to left is an evidence of its > Arab origin. For instance, the numeral for five hundred in English > should be written as 005, not as 500 according to English's > left-to-right reading style.
That's a hindu style. > > Another invention that revolutionized mathematics was the introduction > of the number zero by Muhammad Bin Ahmad in 967 AD. Zero was > introduced in the West as late as the beginning of the thirteenth > century. Modern society takes the invention of the zero for granted, > yet the Zero is a non-trivial concept, that allowed major mathematical > breakthroughs. Zero and place-holder arithmetic were Hindu inventions. It ain't called "Hindu-Arabic" numerals for nothing. > > Arab civilizations also made a great contribution to fractions and to > the principle of errors, which is employed to solve Algebra problems > arithmetically. > > Concerning Algebra, al-Khawarzmi is credited with the first treatise. > He solved Algebra equations of the first and second degree (known as > quadratic equations, and are are prevelant in science and engineering) > and also introduced the geometrical method of solving these equations. > > He also recognized that quadratic equations have two roots. His method > was continued by Thabet Bin Qura, the translator of Ptolemy's works > who developed Algebra and first realized application in geometry. By > the 11th century the Arabs had founded, developed and perfected > geometrical algebra and could solve equations of the third and fourth > degree. > > Another outstanding Arab mathematician is Abul Wafa who created and > successfully developed a branch of geometry which consists of problems > leading to equations in Algebra of a higher degree than the second. He > made a number of valuable contributions to polyhedral theory. > > Al-Karaki, of the 11th century is considered to be one of the greatest > Arab mathematicians. He composed one arithmetic book and another on > Algebra. In the two books, he developed an approximate method of > finding square roots, a theory of indices, a theory of mathematical > induction and a theory of intermediate quadratic equations. > > Arabs have excelled in geometry, starting with the transition of > Euclid and conic section of Apolonios and they preserved the genuine > works of these two Greek masters for the modern world, by the 9th > century AD. and then started making new discoveries in this domain. > > In his book translated by Roger Bacon, Ibn al-Haitham wrote a book on > geometrical optics, dealing with problems that would be difficult to > solve even now. > > It is also at the hand of the Arabs that the geometry of conic > sections was developed to a great extent. > > However, Arab achievements in this field were crowned by the discovery > made by Abu Jafar Muhammad Ibn Muhammad Ibn al-Hassan, known as > Nassereddine al-Tusi. Al-Tusi separated trigonometry from astronomy. > This contribution recognizes and explains weakness in Euclid's theory > of parallels, and thereby may thus be credited as founder of > non-Euclidian geometry. > > > ..... > > > > After the decline of the Roman Empire (not that the Romans did > anything for maths!) India became the temporary centre of mathematical > research. The most important contributions of the Hindus in the second > half of the first millenium were the decimal place system, the > introduction of zero and negative numbers, and the development of > algebra. Whereas Diophantus' first step in the solution of a linear > equation was to remove the negative terms, the Hindus worked with > negative numbers from about 600 A.D. > > A number was turned into the corresponding negative quantity by > placing a dot over it. They also had a method for representing > positive and negative numbers pictorially by line segments in > different directions, corresponding to our representation using a > number line. > > In their treatment of equations in several unknowns, the Hindus also > achieved some advance on Diophantus, in that they actually worked with > several unknowns using different colours to distinguish them. Thus the > second unknown was called "the black one", the third "The blue one", etc. > > Since they allowed negative numbers in their solution of quadratic > equations, they could combine the various cases considered by > Diophantus into one rule, and had a method of solution similar to our > formula for quadratics today. The Hindus were the first to show an > awareness of the fact that roots occur in pairs, and occasionally even > admitted negative roots as solutions. > > The Arabs took over the preparatory work done by the Greeks and Hindus > in algebra. Their most important algebraist was al-Khowarizmi (9th > century - his name is commemorated in the word "algorithm"). His major > work is entitled "Al-jabr wa'lmugabalah" (restoration and balancing) > and from the first word in this title we now have the word "algebra". > However his algebra was a rhetorical algebra which, unlike the work of > Diophantus, did not use symbols for particular arithmetical operations. > > > ----- > > > Pioneers of science > > Abd al-Malik Ibn Quraib al-Asmai (740-828) > Zoology, botany, animal husbandry > > Muhammad Bin Musa al-Khwarizmi (Algorizm) > (770-840) > Mathematics, astronomy, geography, (algorithm, algebra, calculus) > > Abu 'Uthman 'Amr ibn Bakr al-Basri al-Jahiz > (776-868) > Zoology, Arabic grammar, rhetoric, lexicography > > Yaqub Ibn Ishaq al-Kindi (Alkindus) (800-873) > Philosophy, physics, optics, medicine, mathematics, metallurgy > > Jabir Ibn Haiyan (Geber) > (Died 803) > > Thabit Ibn Qurrah (Thebit) > (836-901) > Astronomy, mechanics, geometry, anatomy > > Ali Ibn Rabban al-Tabari > (838-870) > Medicine, mathematics, calligraphy, literature > > Abu Abdullah al-Battani (Albategnius) (858-929) > Astronomy, mathematics, trigonometry > > Abul-Abbas Ahmad al-Farghani (al-Fraganus) > (C. 860) > Astronomy, civil engineering > > Muhammad Ibn Zakariya al-Razi (Rhazes) > (864-930) > Medicine, ophthalmology, smallpox, chemistry, astronomy > > Abu al-Nasr al-Farabi (al-Pharabius) > (870-950) > Sociology, logic, philosophy, political science, music > > 'Abbas Ibn Firnas > (Died 888) > Mechanics of flight, planetarium, artificial crystals, Also, > reputedly, the first man to fly. > > Abd-al Rahman al-Sufi (Azophi) (903-986) > Astronomy > > Abu al-Qasim al-Zahrawi (Albucasis) > (936-1013) > Surgery, medicine (father of modern surgery) > > Abul Wafa Muhammad al-Buzjani > (940-997) > Mathematics, astronomy, geometry, trigonometry > > Abul Hasan Ali al-Masu'di > (Died 957) > Geography, history > > Abu Ali Hasan Ibn al-Haitham (Alhazen) > (965-1040) > Physics, optics, mathematics > > Abu al-Hasan al-Mawardi (Alboacen) (972-1058) > Political science, sociology, jurisprudence, ethics > > Abu Raihan al-Biruni > (973-1048) > Astronomy, mathematics. Determined the earth's circumference > > Abu Ali al-Hussain Ibn Abdallah Ibn Sina (Avicenna) > (981-1037) > Medicine, philosophy, mathematics, astronomy > > Abu Ishaq Ibrahim Ibn Yahya al-Zarqali (Arzachel) > (1028-1087) > Astronomy (invented astrolabe) > > Omar al-Khayyam > (1044-1123) > Mathematics, poetry > > Abu Hamid al-Ghazali (Algazel) > (1058-1111) > Sociology, theology, philosophy > > Abu Marwan Ibn Zuhr (Avenzoar, Abumeron) > (1091-1161) > Surgery, medicine > > Abu Abdallah Muhammad al-Idrisi (1099-1166) > Geography (world map, first globe) > > Abul Waleed Muhammad Ibn Rushd (Averroes) > (1128-1198) > Philosophy, law, medicine, astronomy, theology > > Nasir al-Din al-Tusi > (1201-1274) > Astronomy, non-Euclidean geometry > > Nur al-Din Ibn Ishaq al-Bitruji (Alpetragius) > (Died 1204) > Astronomy > > Jalal al-Din Rumi > (1207) > Sociology > > Ibn al-Nafis Damishqi > (1213-1288) > Anatomy > > Abu Muhammad Abdallah Ibn al-Baitar > (Died 1248) > Pharmacy, botany > > Mohammed Targai Ulugh Beg > (1393-1449) > Astronomy > > Abd al-Rahman Ibn Muhammad Ibn Khaldun > (1332-1395) > Sociology, philosophy of history, political science > > > > ------ > Centuries in the House of Wisdom > > Iraq's golden age of science brought us algebra, optics, windmills and > much more, writes Brian Whitaker > > Thursday September 23, 2004 > The Guardian > > For most of the last 5,000 years, Iraq was a key centre of scientific > knowledge. Mathematics, developed initially for keeping accounts, > gradually spread into far more ambitious areas such as predictive > astronomy, making use of data painstakingly collected and recorded at > the temples of Uruk and Babylon over several centuries. > > During the first century after the birth of Islam, Muslim armies > defeated the Persians and moved into Iraq. Around 762, the Abbasid > caliphs established their capital in the newly founded city of Baghdad > from where they ruled the vast Muslim empire for the next five centuries. > > This was the high point of Islamic civilisation, when scholars of > various religions from around the world flocked to the Bayt al-Hikma > (House of Wisdom), an unrivalled centre for the study of humanities > and for sciences, including mathematics, astronomy, medicine, > chemistry, zoology and geography, as well as some more dubious > subjects such as alchemy and astrology. > > Drawing on Persian, Indian and Greek texts - Aristotle, Plato, > Hippocrates, Euclid, Pythagoras and others - the scholars accumulated > the greatest collection of knowledge in the world, and built on it > through their own discoveries. > > These developments in Iraq were made possible by widespread literacy > and also by the availability of paper as an everyday writing material. > The first paper arrived in Iraq from China, probably along the silk > route via Samarkand, in the eighth century - long before it reached > Europe. Shortly afterwards, a paper mill was established in Baghdad, > and by the end of the 10th century, paper had replaced parchment and > papyrus in the Arab world. > > Probably the most famous mathematician at the House of Wisdom was > al-Khawarizmi, known as the father of algebra - a word derived from > the title of his book, Kitab al-Jabr. > > Several important figures are also associated with the southern city > of Basra, another key centre of learning. Al-Jahiz, born in Basra in > 776, seems to have come from an ordinary background and as a youth > helped his father to sell fish. His most famous work was the > seven-volume Book of Animals which included his observations on the > social organisation of ants, communication between animals and the > effects of diet and environment. Altogether, he wrote about 200 books > on a wide range of topics, including The Art of Keeping One's Mouth > Shut and Against Civil Servants. He died at the age of 92, allegedly > when a pile of books in his personal library fell on top of him. > > Al-Masu'di, who died in 957, spent some time in Basra writing about > his travels to India, China and East Africa. As with many scholars of > his day, his interests were broad and his writing contained elements > of history, geography, sociology and anthropology which, unusually for > the time, he approached in an analytical way. He also explored > problems in the earth sciences - such as the causes of earthquakes - > and was also the first writer to mention windmills, invented by > Muslims in Sijistan. > > Ibn al-Haytham (also known as Alhazen) worked as a civil servant in > 10th-century Basra before taking up science. Moving later to Egypt, he > became head of a project to regulate the flow of the Nile but, on > investigation, he decided it was impossible. This annoyed the Fatimid > caliph in Cairo, and Ibn al-Haytham reputedly escaped punishment by > pretending to be mad until the caliph died. > > Among the mathematical problems he explored was the squaring of the > circle. He also wrote a seven-volume treatise on optics and the nature > of light. This explored reflection from plane and curved surfaces, > refraction, and the structure of the eye - though he did not > understand the importance of the lens. > > Iraqi science went into decline, partly because of natural disasters > such as floods, but also for reasons that are familiar today: > religious rivalries and problems with internal security. In 1258 the > Mongols sacked Baghdad and, according to some accounts, the Tigris and > Euphrates ran red with the blood of scholars. > > > ====== > > > While the "occidental-oriental" dichotomy of recent centuries > identifies the World of Islam as separate and `Eastern,' that world, > is inextricably linked with the West. In general, however, "Westerners > - Europeans - have great difficulty in considering the possibility > that they are in some way seriously indebted to the Arab [Islamic] > world, or that the Arabs [Muslims] were central to the making of > medieval Europe" (Maria Menocal, The Arabic Role in Medieval Literary > History; 1987; p.xiii). Two notable contemporary exceptions are: Carl > Sagan, the Nobel laureate astronomer (Princeton University) and John > Esposito, Director, Center for Muslim-Christian Understanding, > Georgetown University. Both have candidly talked of West's > Judeo-Christian-and-Islamic heritage. Esposito talked of this heritage > recently, and added, "Nobody ever told me that," and that he "was > always taught the linkages between Judaism and Chistianity..." (CNN, > 12/15/95). > > This thesis may be corroborated by merely presenting a few quotations > from eminent past and present scholars (interested readers may wish to > consult the references for greater detail): > > 1. "No historical student of the culture of Western Europe can ever > reconstruct for himself the intellectual values of the later Middle > Ages unless he possesses a vivid awareness of Islam looming in the > background." (Pierce Butler, "Fifteenth Century of Arabic Authors in > Latin Translation, in the McDonald Presentation Volume; Freeport, > N.Y., 1933; p.63) > > 2. "The Arab has left his intellectual impress on Europe, as, before > long, Christendom will have to confess; he has indelibly written it on > the heavens, as anyone may see who reads the names of the stars on a > common celestial globe." (John W. Draper, History of the Intellectual > Development of Europe, Harper & Row; Vol.2, 1876 & 1904; p.42) > > 3. "Because Europe was reacting against Islam it belittled the > influence of Saracens [Muslims] and exaggerated its dependence on its > Greek and Roman heritage. So today an important task for us is to > correct this false emphasis and to acknowledge fully our debt to the > Arab and Islamic world" (W. Montgomery Watt, Islamic Surveys: The > Influence of Islam on Medieval Europe; Edinburgh, England; 1972; p.84). > > 4. "One of the hallmarks of civilized man is knowledge of the past - > [including]the past of others with whom one's own culture has had > repeated and fruitful contact; or the past of any group that has > contributed to the ascent of man. The Arabs fit profoundly into both > of the latter two categories. But in the West the Arabs are not well > known. Victims of ignorance as well as misinformation, they and their > culture have often been stigmatized from afar" (John Hayes, The Genius > of Arab Civilization: Source of Renaissance; MIT Press, 1983; p. 2) > > 5. "Too often science in Arabia has been seen as nothing more than a > holding operation. The area has been viewed as a giant storehouse for > previously discovered scientific results, keeping them until they > could be passed on for use in the West. But this is, of course, a > travesty of the truth. Certainly the Arabs did inherit Greek science - > and some Indian and Chinese science too, for that matter - and later > passed it on to the West. But this is far from being all they did" > (Colin Ronan, Science: Its History and Development Among World's > Cultures; New York; 1982; p.203). > > 6. An eminent mid-20th century scholar, George Sarton (Harvard Univ.), > traces the "roots" of Western intellectual development to the Arab > tradition, which was "the outstanding stream, and remained until 14th > century one of the largest streams of medieval thought." Further, "The > Arabs were standing on the shoulders of their Greek forerunners, just > as the Americans are standing on the shoulders of their European ones. > There is nothing wrong in that." Then Sarton criticizes those who > "will glibly say `The Arabs simply translated Greek writings, they > were industrious imitators...' This is not absolutely untrue, but is > such a small part of the truth, that when it is allowed to stand > alone, it is worse than a lie" (George Sarton, A Guide to the History > of Science; Mass.; 1952; pp.27-28). > > WHO WERE SOME OF THE MEDIEVAL EUROPEAN SCHOLARS INFLUENCED DIRECTLY OR > INDIRECTLY BY THE WRITINGS OF ISLAMIC SCHOLARS? > > The list is almost endless, but here are a few prominent names: > > Adelard of Bath, Peter Abelard, Robert Grossetteste, Alexander of > Hales, Albertus Magnus, St. Thomas Aquinas, St. Bonaventura, Duns > Scotus, Roger Bacon, Marsilius of Padua, Richard of Middleton, > Nicholas Oresme, Joannes Buridanus, Siger of Brabant, John Peckham, > Henry of Gant, Williams of Occham, Walter Burley, William of Auvergne, > Dante Algheri, Blaise Pascal, and numerous others. > > The well-known early 12th century Englishman, Adelard of Bath, often > proudly acknowledged his debt to the Arabs - "trained (as he says) by > Arab scientists....I was taught by my Arab masters to be led only by > reason, whereas you were taught to follow the halter of the captured > image of ancient authority [i.e., authority of the Church]" (Tina > Stiefel, The Intellectual Revolution in Twelfth Century Europe; St. > Martin's Press, N.Y., 1989; pp.71, 80). > > > ------ > > > The concept that the sciences are exclusively the products of Western > minds remains unquestioned by most individuals. A review of any of the > standard texts or encyclopedias regarding the history of science would > support this view. As these books are perused, it becomes evident that > the only contributors given significant mention are Europeans and/or > Americans. It is hardly necessary to repeat the oft-mentioned names: > Galileo, Copernicus, Kepler, Bacon, Newton, Da Vinci, Benjamin > Franklin, etc. The unavoidable conclusion is that major contributions > to the development of the modern sciences by other cultures is > minimal. Most texts give little or no mention of the advancements made > by ancient Indian, Chinese or, particularly, Muslim scholars. > > Western civilization has made invaluable contributions to the > development of the sciences. However, so have numerous other cultures. > Unfortunately, Westerners have long been credited with discoveries > made many centuries before by Islamic scholars. Thus, many of the > basic sciences were invented by non-Europeans. For instance, George > Sarton states that modern Western medicine did not originate from > Europe and that it actually arose from the (Islamic) orient. > > The data in this section concerning dates, names and topics of Western > advances has been derived from three main sources: World Book > Encyclopedia, Encyclopaedia Britannica and Isaac Asimov's 700 page > book, Chronology of Science and Discovery. Supportive data for the > accomplishments of Islamic scholars is derived from the miscellaneous > references listed in the bibliography of this book. > > What is Taught: The first mention of man in flight was by Roger Bacon, > who drew a flying apparatus. Leonardo da Vinci also conceived of > airborne transport and drew several prototypes. > > What Should be Taught: Ibn Firnas of Islamic Spain invented, > constructed and tested a flying machine in the 800's A.D. Roger Bacon > learned of flying machines from Arabic references to Ibn Firnas' > machine. The latter's invention antedates Bacon by 500 years and Da > Vinci by some 700 years. > > What is Taught: Glass mirrors were first produced in 1291 in Venice. > > What Should be Taught: Glass mirrors were in use in Islamic Spain as > early as the 11th century. The Venetians learned of the art of fine > glass production from Syrian artisans during the 9th and 10th centuries. > > What is Taught: Until the 14th century, the only type of clock > available was the water clock. In 1335, a large mechanical clock was > erected in Milan, Italy. This was possibly the first weight-driven clock. > > What Should be Taught: A variety of mechanical clocks were produced by > Spanish Muslim engineers, both large and small, and this knowledge was > transmitted to Europe through Latin translations of Islamic books on > mechanics. These clocks were weight-driven. Designs and illustrations > of epi-cyclic and segmental gears were provided. One such clock > included a mercury escapement. The latter type was directly copied by > Europeans during the 15th century. In addition, during the 9th > century, Ibn Firnas of Islamic Spain, according to Will Durant, > invented a watch-like device which kept accurate time. The Muslims > also constructed a variety of highly accurate astronomical clocks for > use in their observatories. > > What is Taught: In the 17th century, the pendulum was developed by > Galileo during his teenage years. He noticed a chandelier swaying as > it was being blown by the wind. As a result, he went home and invented > the pendulum. > > What Should be Taught: The pendulum was discovered by Ibn Yunus > al-Masri during the 10th century, who was the first to study and > document its oscillatory motion. Its value for use in clocks was > introduced by Muslim physicists during the 15th century. > > What is Taught: Movable type and the printing press was invented in > the West by Johannes Gutenberg of Germany during the 15th century. > > What Should be Taught: In 1454, Gutenberg developed the most > sophisticated printing press of the Middle Ages. However, movable > brass type was in use in Islamic Spain 100 years prior, and that is > where the West's first printing devices were made. > > What is Taught: Isaac Newton's 17th century study of lenses, light and > prisms forms the foundation of the modern science of optics. > > What Should be Taught: In the 1lth century al-Haytham determined > virtually everything that Newton advanced regarding optics centuries > prior and is regarded by numerous authorities as the "founder of > optics. " There is little doubt that Newton was influenced by him. > Al-Haytham was the most quoted physicist of the Middle Ages. His works > were utilized and quoted by a greater number of European scholars > during the 16th and 17th centuries than those of Newton and Galileo > combined. > > What is Taught: Isaac Newton, during the 17th century, discovered that > white light consists of various rays of colored light. > > What Should be Taught: This discovery was made in its entirety by > al-Haytham (1lth century) and Kamal ad-Din (14th century). Newton did > make original discoveries, but this was not one of them. > > What is Taught: The concept of the finite nature of matter was first > introduced by Antione Lavoisier during the 18th century. He discovered > that, although matter may change its form or shape, its mass always > remains the same. Thus, for instance, if water is heated to steam, if > salt is dissolved in water or if a piece of wood is burned to ashes, > the total mass remains unchanged. > > What Should be Taught: The principles of this discovery were > elaborated centuries before by Islamic Persia's great scholar, > al-Biruni (d. 1050). Lavoisier was a disciple of the Muslim chemists > and physicists and referred to their books frequently. > > What is Taught: The Greeks were the developers of trigonometry. > > What Should be Taught: Trigonometry remained largely a theoretical > science among the Greeks. It was developed to a level of modern > perfection by Muslim scholars, although the weight of the credit must > be given to al-Battani. The words describing the basic functions of > this science, sine, cosine and tangent, are all derived from Arabic > terms. Thus, original contributions by the Greeks in trigonometry were > minimal. > > What is Taught: The use of decimal fractions in mathematics was first > developed by a Dutchman, Simon Stevin, in 1589. He helped advance the > mathematical sciences by replacing the cumbersome fractions, for > instance, 1/2, with decimal fractions, for example, 0.5. > > What Should be Taught: Muslim mathematicians were the first to utilize > decimals instead of fractions on a large scale. Al-Kashi's book, Key > to Arithmetic, was written at the beginning of the 15th century and > was the stimulus for the systematic application of decimals to whole > numbers and fractions thereof. It is highly probably that Stevin > imported the idea to Europe from al-Kashi's work. > > What is Taught: The first man to utilize algebraic symbols was the > French mathematician, Francois Vieta. In 1591, he wrote an algebra > book describing equations with letters such as the now familiar x and > y's. Asimov says that this discovery had an impact similar to the > progression from Roman numerals to Arabic numbers. > > What Should be Taught: Muslim mathematicians, the inventors of > algebra, introduced the concept of using letters for unknown variables > in equations as early as the 9th century A.D. Through this system, > they solved a variety of complex equations, including quadratic and > cubic equations. They used symbols to develop and perfect the binomial > theorem. > > What is Taught: The difficult cubic equations (x to the third power) > remained unsolved until the 16th century when Niccolo Tartaglia, an > Italian mathematician, solved them. > > What Should be Taught: Cubic equations as well as numerous equations > of even higher degrees were solved with ease by Muslim mathematicians > as early as the 10th century. > > What is Taught: The concept that numbers could be less than zero, that > is negative numbers, was unknown until 1545 when Geronimo Cardano > introduced the idea. > > What Should he Taught: Muslim mathematicians introduced negative > numbers for use in a variety of arithmetic functions at least 400 > years prior to Cardano. > > What is Taught: In 1614, John Napier invented logarithms and > logarithmic tables. > > What Should be Taught: Muslim mathematicians invented logarithms and > produced logarithmic tables several centuries prior. Such tables were > common in the Islamic world as early as the 13th century. > > What is Taught: During the 17th century Rene Descartes made the > discovery that algebra could be used to solve geometrical problems. By > this, he greatly advanced the science of geometry. > > What Should be Taught: Mathematicians of the Islamic Empire > accomplished precisely this as early as the 9th century A.D. Thabit > bin Qurrah was the first to do so, and he was followed by Abu'l Wafa, > whose 10th century book utilized algebra to advance geometry into an > exact and simplified science. > > What is Taught: Isaac Newton, during the 17th century, developed the > binomial theorem, which is a crucial component for the study of algebra. > > What Should be Taught: Hundreds of Muslim mathematicians utilized and > perfected the binomial theorem. They initiated its use for the > systematic solution of algebraic problems during the 10th century (or > prior). > > What is Taught: No improvement had been made in the astronomy of the > ancients during the Middle Ages regarding the motion of planets until > the 13th century. Then Alphonso the Wise of Castile (Middle Spain) > invented the Aphonsine Tables, which were more accurate than Ptolemy's. > > What Should be Taught: Muslim astronomers made numerous improvements > upon Ptolemy's findings as early as the 9th century. They were the > first astronomers to dispute his archaic ideas. In their critic of the > Greeks, they synthesized proof that the sun is the center of the solar > system and that the orbits of the earth and other planets might be > elliptical. They produced hundreds of highly accurate astronomical > tables and star charts. Many of their calculations are so precise that > they are regarded as contemporary. The AlphonsineTables are little > more than copies of works on astronomy transmitted to Europe via > Islamic Spain, i.e. the Toledo Tables. > > What is Taught: The English scholar Roger Bacon (d. 1292) first > mentioned glass lenses for improving vision. At nearly the same time, > eyeglasses could be found in use both in China and Europe. > > What Should be Taught: Ibn Firnas of Islamic Spain invented eyeglasses > during the 9th century, and they were manufactured and sold throughout > Spain for over two centuries. Any mention of eyeglasses by Roger Bacon > was simply a regurgitation of the work of al-Haytham (d. 1039), whose > research Bacon frequently referred to. > > What is Taught: Gunpowder was developed in the Western world as a > result of Roger Bacon's work in 1242. The first usage of gunpowder in > weapons was when the Chinese fired it from bamboo shoots in attempt to > frighten Mongol conquerors. They produced it by adding sulfur and > charcoal to saltpeter. > > What Should be Taught: The Chinese developed saltpeter for use in > fireworks and knew of no tactical military use for gunpowder, nor did > they invent its formula. Research by Reinuad and Fave have clearly > shown that gunpowder was formulated initially by Muslim chemists. > Further, these historians claim that the Muslims developed the first > fire-arms. Notably, Muslim armies used grenades and other weapons in > their defence of Algericus against the Franks during the 14th century. > Jean Mathes indicates that the Muslim rulers had stock-piles of > grenades, rifles, crude cannons, incendiary devices, sulfur bombs and > pistols decades before such devices were used in Europe. The first > mention of a cannon was in an Arabic text around 1300 A.D. Roger Bacon > learned of the formula for gunpowder from Latin translations of Arabic > books. He brought forth nothing original in this regard. > > What is Taught: The compass was invented by the Chinese who may have > been the first to use it for navigational purposes sometime between > 1000 and 1100 A.D. The earliest reference to its use in navigation was > by the Englishman, Alexander Neckam (1157-1217). > > What Should be Taught: Muslim geographers and navigators learned of > the magnetic needle, possibly from the Chinese, and were the first to > use magnetic needles in navigation. They invented the compass and > passed the knowledge of its use in navigation to the West. European > navigators relied on Muslim pilots and their instruments when > exploring unknown territories. Gustav Le Bon claims that the magnetic > needle and compass were entirely invented by the Muslims and that the > Chinese had little to do with it. Neckam, as well as the Chinese, > probably learned of it from Muslim traders. It is noteworthy that the > Chinese improved their navigational expertise after they began > interacting with the Muslims during the 8th century. > > What is Taught: The first man to classify the races was the German > Johann F. Blumenbach, who divided mankind into white, yellow, brown, > black and red peoples. > > What Should be Taught: Muslim scholars of the 9th through 14th > centuries invented the science of ethnography. A number of Muslim > geographers classified the races, writing detailed explanations of > their unique cultural habits and physical appearances. They wrote > thousands of pages on this subject. Blumenbach's works were > insignificant in comparison. > > What is Taught: The science of geography was revived during the 15th, > 16th and 17th centuries when the ancient works of Ptolemy were > discovered. The Crusades and the Portuguese/Spanish expeditions also > contributed to this reawakening. The first scientifically-based > treatise on geography were produced during this period by Europe's > scholars. > > What Should be Taught: Muslim geographers produced untold volumes of > books on the geography of Africa, Asia, India, China and the Indies > during the 8th through 15th centuries. These writings included the > world's first geographical encyclopedias, almanacs and road maps. Ibn > Battutah's 14th century masterpieces provide a detailed view of the > geography of the ancient world. The Muslim geographers of the 10th > through 15th centuries far exceeded the output by Europeans regarding > the geography of these regions well into the 18th century. The > Crusades led to the destruction of educational institutions, their > scholars and books. They brought nothing substantive regarding > geography to the Western world. > > What is Taught: Robert Boyle, in the 17th century, originated the > science of chemistry. > > What Should be Taught: A variety of Muslim chemists, including > ar-Razi, al-Jabr, al-Biruni and al-Kindi, performed scientific > experiments in chemistry some 700 years prior to Boyle. Durant writes > that the Muslims introduced the experimental method to this science. > Humboldt regards the Muslims as the founders of chemistry. > > What is Taught: Leonardo da Vinci (16th century) fathered the science > of geology when he noted that fossils found on mountains indicated a > watery origin of the earth. > > What Should be Taught: Al-Biruni (1lth century) made precisely this > observation and added much to it, including a huge book on geology, > hundreds of years before Da Vinci was born. Ibn Sina noted this as > well (see pages 100-101). it is probable that Da Vinci first learned > of this concept from Latin translations of Islamic books. He added > nothing original to their findings. > > What is Taught: The first mention of the geological formation of > valleys was in 1756, when Nicolas Desmarest proposed that they were > formed over a long periods of time by streams. > > What Should be Taught: Ibn Sina and al-Biruni made precisely this > discovery during the 11th century (see pages 102 and 103), fully 700 > years prior to Desmarest. > > What is Taught: Galileo (17th century) was the world's first great > experimenter. > > What Should be Taught: Al-Biruni (d. 1050) was the world's first great > experimenter. He wrote over 200 books, many of which discuss his > precise experiments. His literary output in the sciences amounts to > some 13,000 pages, far exceeding that written by Galileo or, for that > matter, Galileo and Newton combined. > > What is Taught: The Italian Giovanni Morgagni is regarded as the > father of pathology because he was the first to correctly describe the > nature of disease. > > What Should be Taught: Islam's surgeons were the first pathologists. > They fully realized the nature of disease and described a variety of > diseases to modern detail. Ibn Zuhr correctly described the nature of > pleurisy, tuberculosis and pericarditis. Az-Zahrawi accurately > documented the pathology of hydrocephalus (water on the brain) and > other congenital diseases. Ibn al-Quff and Ibn an-Nafs gave perfect > descriptions of the diseases of circulation. Other Muslim surgeons > gave the first accurate descriptions of certain malignancies, > including cancer of the stomach, bowel and esophagus. These surgeons > were the originators of pathology, not Giovanni Morgagni. > > What is Taught: Paul Ehrlich (19th century) is the originator of drug > chemotherapy, that is the use of specific drugs to kill microbes. > > What Should be Taught: Muslim physicians used a variety of specific > substances to destroy microbes. They applied sulfur topically > specifically to kill the scabies mite. Ar-Razi (10th century) used > mercurial compounds as topical antiseptics. > > What is Taught: Purified alcohol, made through distillation, was first > produced by Arnau de Villanova, a Spanish alchemist, in 1300 A.D. > > What Should be Taught: Numerous Muslim chemists produced > medicinal-grade alcohol through distillation as early as the 10th > century and manufactured on a large scale the first distillation > devices for use in chemistry. They used alcohol as a solvent and > antiseptic. > > What is Taught: The first surgery performed under inhalation > anesthesia was conducted by C.W. Long, an American, in 1845. > > What Should be Taught: Six hundred years prior to Long, Islamic > Spain's Az-Zahrawi and Ibn Zuhr, among other Muslim surgeons, > performed hundreds of surgeries under inhalation anesthesia with the > use of narcotic-soaked sponges which were placed over the face. > > What is Taught: During the 16th century Paracelsus invented the use of > opium extracts for anesthesia. > > What Should be Taught: Muslim physicians introduced the anesthetic > value of opium derivatives during the Middle Ages. Opium was > originally used as an anesthetic agent by the Greeks. Paracelus was a > student of Ibn Sina's works from which it is almost assured that he > derived this idea. > > What is Taught: Modern anesthesia was invented in the 19th century by > Humphrey Davy and Horace Wells. > > What Should be Taught: Modern anesthesia was discovered, mastered and > perfected by Muslim anesthetists 900 years before the advent of Davy > and Wells. They utilized oral as well as inhalant anesthetics. > > What is Taught: The concept of quarantine was first developed in 1403. > In Venice, a law was passed preventing strangers from entering the > city until a certain waiting period had passed. If, by then, no sign > of illness could be found, they were allowed in. > > What Should be Taught: The concept of quarantine was first introduced > in the 7th century A.D. by the prophet Muhammad, who wisely warned > against entering or leaving a region suffering from plague. As early > as the 10th century, Muslim physicians innovated the use of isolation > wards for individuals suffering with communicable diseases. > > What is Taught: The scientific use of antiseptics in surgery was > discovered by the British surgeon Joseph Lister in 1865. > > What Should be Taught: As early as the 10th century, Muslim physicians > and surgeons were applying purified alcohol to wounds as an antiseptic > agent. Surgeons in Islamic Spain utilized special methods for > maintaining antisepsis prior to and during surgery. They also > originated specific protocols for maintaining hygiene during the > post-operative period. Their success rate was so high that dignitaries > throughout Europe came to Cordova, Spain, to be treated at what was > comparably the "Mayo Clinic" of the Middle Ages. > > What is Taught: In 1545, the scientific use of surgery was advanced by > the French surgeon Ambroise Pare. Prior to him, surgeons attempted to > stop bleeding through the gruesome procedure of searing the wound with > boiling oil. Pare stopped the use of boiling oils and began ligating > arteries. He is considered the "father of rational surgery." Pare was > also one of the first Europeans to condemn such grotesque "surgical" > procedures as trepanning (see reference #6, pg. 110). > > What Should be Taught: Islamic Spain's illustrious surgeon, az- Zahrawi > (d. 1013), began ligating arteries with fine sutures over 500 years > prior to Pare. He perfected the use of Catgut, that is suture made > from animal intestines. Additionally, he instituted the use of cotton > plus wax to plug bleeding wounds. The full details of his works were > made available to Europeans through Latin translations. > > Despite this, barbers and herdsmen continued be the primary > individuals practicing the "art" of surgery for nearly six centuries > after az-Zahrawi's death. Pare himself was a barber, albeit more > skilled and conscientious than the average ones. > > Included in az-Zahrawi's legacy are dozens of books. His most famous > work is a 30 volume treatise on medicine and surgery. His books > contain sections on preventive medicine, nutrition, cosmetics, drug > therapy, surgical technique, anesthesia, pre and post-operative care > as well as drawings of some 200 surgical devices, many of which he > invented. The refined and scholarly az-Zahrawi must be regarded as the > father and founder of rational surgery, not the uneducated Pare. > > What is Taught: William Harvey, during the early 17th century, > discovered that blood circulates. He was the first to correctly > describe the function of the heart, arteries and veins. Rome's Galen > had presented erroneous ideas regarding the circulatory system, and > Harvey was the first to determine that blood is pumped throughout the > body via the action of the heart and the venous valves. Therefore, he > is regarded as the founder of human physiology. > > What Should be Taught: In the 10th century, Islam's ar-Razi wrote an > in-depth treatise on the venous system, accurately describing the > function of the veins and their valves. Ibn an-Nafs and Ibn al-Quff > (13th century) provided full documentation that the blood circulates > and correctly described the physiology of the heart and the function > of its valves 300 years before Harvey. William Harvey was a graduate > of Italy's famous Padua University at a time when the majority of its > curriculum was based upon Ibn Sina's and ar-Razi's textbooks. > > What is Taught: The first pharmacopeia (book of medicines) was > published by a German scholar in 1542. According to World Book > Encyclopedia, the science of pharmacology was begun in the 1900's as > an off-shoot of chemistry due to the analysis of crude plant > materials. Chemists, after isolating the active ingredients from > plants, realized their medicinal value. > > What Should be Taught: According to the eminent scholar of Arab > history, Phillip Hitti, the Muslims, not the Greeks or Europeans, > wrote the first "modern" pharmacopeia. The science of pharmacology was > originated by Muslim physicians during the 9th century. They developed > it into a highly refined and exact science. Muslim chemists, > pharmacists and physicians produced thousands of drugs and/or crude > herbal extracts one thousand years prior to the supposed birth of > pharmacology. During the 14th century Ibn Baytar wrote a monumental > pharmacopeia listing some 1400 different drugs. Hundreds of other > pharmacopeias were published during the Islamic Era. It is likely that > the German work is an offshoot of that by Ibn Baytar, which was widely > circulated in Europe. > > What is Taught: The discovery of the scientific use of drugs in the > treatment of specific diseases was made by Paracelsus, the Swiss- born > physician, during the 16th century. He is also credited with being the > first to use practical experience as a determining factor in the > treatment of patients rather than relying exclusively on the works of > the ancients. > > What Should be Taught: Ar-Razi, Ibn Sina, al-Kindi, Ibn Rushd, > az-Zahrawi, Ibn Zuhr, Ibn Baytar, Ibn al-Jazzar, Ibn Juljul, Ibn > al-Quff, Ibn an-Nafs, al-Biruni, Ibn Sahl and hundreds of other Muslim > physicians mastered the science of drug therapy for the treatment of > specific symptoms and diseases. In fact, this concept was entirely > their invention. The word "drug" is derived from Arabic. Their use of > practical experience and careful observation was extensive. > > Muslim physicians were the first to criticize ancient medical theories > and practices. Ar-Razi devoted an entire book as a critique of Galen's > anatomy. The works of Paracelsus are insignificant compared to the > vast volumes of medical writings and original findings accomplished by > the medical giants of Islam. > > What is Taught: The first sound approach to the treatment of disease > was made by a German, Johann Weger, in the 1500's. > > What Should be Taught: Harvard's George Sarton says that modern > medicine is entirely an Islamic development and that Setting the > Record Straight the Muslim physicians of the 9th through 12th > centuries were precise, scientific, rational and sound in their > approach. Johann Weger was among thousands of Europeans physicians > during the 15th through 17th centuries who were taught the medicine of > ar-Razi and Ibn Sina. He contributed nothing original. > > What is Taught: Medical treatment for the insane was modernized by > Philippe Pinel when in 1793 he operated France's first insane asylum. > > What Should be Taught: As early as the 1lth century, Islamic hospitals > maintained special wards for the insane. They treated them kindly and > presumed their disease was real at a time when the insane were > routinely burned alive in Europe as witches and sorcerers. A curative > approach was taken for mental illness and, for the first time in > history, the mentally ill were treated with supportive care, drugs and > psychotherapy. Every major Islamic city maintained an insane asylum > where patients were treated at no charge. In fact, the Islamic system > for the treatment of the insane excels in comparison to the current > model, as it was more humane and was highly effective as well. > > What is Taught: Kerosine was first produced by the an Englishman, > Abraham Gesner, in 1853. He distilled it from asphalt. > > What Should be Taught: Muslim chemists produced kerosine as a > distillate from petroleum products over 1,000 years prior to Gesner > (see Encyclopaedia Britannica under the heading, Petroleum). > ------------------------ Yahoo! Groups Sponsor --------------------~--> Get fast access to your favorite Yahoo! Groups. Make Yahoo! your home page http://us.click.yahoo.com/dpRU5A/wUILAA/yQLSAA/JjtolB/TM --------------------------------------------------------------------~-> To subscribe, send a message to: [EMAIL PROTECTED] Or go to: http://groups.yahoo.com/group/FairfieldLife/ and click 'Join This Group!' Yahoo! Groups Links <*> To visit your group on the web, go to: http://groups.yahoo.com/group/FairfieldLife/ <*> To unsubscribe from this group, send an email to: [EMAIL PROTECTED] <*> Your use of Yahoo! Groups is subject to: http://docs.yahoo.com/info/terms/
