The subject pretty much says it. I have long thought that one of the features of complex systems is that there is no meta-level. By that I mean that no matter what framework-like structure the system provides for elements within it, that framework is itself manipulable from within the system.
Elections are supposed to be a mechanism that collects votes. It is supposed to operate on a meta-level, independent of the actual vote preferences. It is not supposed to be part of the electioneering process. But as we all know, the election process itself is subject to manipulation by parties to the election. A common example is that polling places aren't staffed sufficiently, leading to long lines and discouraged voters. Of course that happens in districts that are not favorable to the party in control of the election mechanism. That sort of thing is not supposed to happen. But obviously it does. This also illustrates one of the weaknesses of modeling--to return to yesterday's thread. Models are always meta-level frameworks. No model that I know of is flexible enough that the elements within the model can change the underlying model assumptions. -- Russ
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