Another interesting find is looping that looks like needle lace in the prehistoric American Southwest. The article found here: https://www.archaeologysouthwest.org/pdf/pecos2008_webster.pdf has a diagram on page 13 which could well be found in a needle lace book and photos of bags on p. 14 in this technique. Santina Levey on p. 5 of Lace, a History makes the point that various techniques, decorated edges, surface decoration, decorated seams and passamenterie existed, and "There was no moment at which any of the above techniques either changed into or were replaced by lace. Gradually, however, during the second quarter of the sixteenth century, changing tastes in trimmings and embroidery resulted in the exaggeration of certain effects: in particular, greater emphasis was placed on decorated seams and edgings while elaborate white embroidery and fancy open-work braids formed an increasingly important part of surface decoration. Needle and bobbin lace began to emerge in response to these demands but it was a long time before they were seen to have become separated from the older techniques and, because their origins lay with different technical groupings, they did not at first resemble one another sufficiently closely to be called by the same name." Incidentally, Levey refers to Birka and this exact publication in the sentence before this paragraph. " The lace-like effect of interlaced faggot stitch can be seen in Swiss and German white embroideries of the fifteenth century and also in the excavated fragments from the ninth-century site at Birka in Sweden which, but for the remains of some fragments of the ground material, could be taken for primitive bobbin lace." So, I guess she is characterizing these interesting fragments as embroideries that have lost their fabric. Devon
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