AN INTRODUCTION TO THE HISTORY OF KHAZARIA
by Kevin Alan Brook, Copyright © 1996-2004
Latest revision: September 2004.
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http://www.khazaria.com/khazar-history.html
"Of all the astonishing experiences of the widely dispersed Jewish people
none was more extraordinary than that concerning the Khazars."
- Nathan Ausubel, in Pictorial History of the Jewish People (1953)
"The Khazar people were an unusual phenomenon for Medieval times. Surrounded by
savage and nomadic tribes, they had all the advantages of the developed
countries: structured government, vast and prosperous trading, and a permanent
army. At the time, when great fanatism and deep ignorance contested their
dominion over Western Europe, the Khazar state was famous for its justice and
tolerance. People persecuted for their faiths flocked into Khazaria from
everywhere. As a glistening star it shone brightly on the gloomy horizon of
Europe, and faded away without leaving any traces of existence."
- Vasilii V. Grigoriev, in his essay "O dvoystvennosti verkhovnoy vlasti u
khazarov" (1835), reprinted in his 1876 compilation book Rossiya i Aziya on
page 66
"Though the Jews were everywhere a subject people, and in much of the world
persecuted as well, Khazaria was the one place in the medieval world where the
Jews actually were their own masters.... To the oppressed Jews of the world,
the Khazars were a source of pride and hope, for their existence seemed to
prove that God had not completely abandoned His people."
- Raymond Scheindlin, in The Chronicles of the Jewish People (1996)
The history of Khazaria presents us with a fascinating example of how Jewish
life flourished in the Middle Ages. In a time when Jews were persecuted thruout
Christian Europe, the kingdom of Khazaria was a beacon of hope. Jews were able
to flourish in Khazaria because of the tolerance of the Khazar rulers, who
invited Byzantine and Persian Jewish refugees to settle in their country. Due
to the influence of these refugees, the Khazars found the Jewish religion to be
appealing and adopted Judaism in large numbers.
Most of the available information about the Khazars comes from Arabic, Hebrew,
Armenian, Byzantine, and Slavic sources, most of which are reliable. There is
also a large quantity of archaeological evidence concerning the Khazars that
illuminates multiple aspects of the Khazarian economy (arts and crafts, trade,
agriculture, fishing, etc.) as well as burial practices.
Origins. The Khazars were a Turkic1 people who originated in Central Asia. The
early Turkic tribes were quite diverse, although it is believed that reddish
hair was predominant among them prior to the Mongol conquests. In the
beginning, the Khazars believed in Tengri shamanism, spoke a Turkic language,
and were nomadic. Later, the Khazars adopted Judaism, Islam, and Christianity,
learned Hebrew and Slavic, and became settled in cities and towns thruout the
north Caucasus and Ukraine. The Khazars had a great history of ethnic
independence extending approximately 800 years from the 5th to the 13th
century.
The earliest history of the Khazars in southern Russia, prior to the middle of
the 6th century, is hidden in obscurity. From about 550 to 630, the Khazars
were part of the Western Turkish Empire, ruled by the Celestial Blue Turks (Kök
Turks). When the Western Turkish Empire was broken up as a result of civil wars
in the middle of the 7th century, the Khazars successfully asserted their
independence. Yet, the Kök kaganate under which they had lived provided the
Khazars with their system of government. For example, the Khazars followed the
same guidelines as the Kök Turks regarding the succession of kings.
Political power. At its maximum extent, the independent country of Khazaria
included the geographic regions of southern Russia, northern Caucasus, eastern
Ukraine, Crimea, western Kazakhstan, and northwestern Uzbekistan. Other Turkic
groups such as the Sabirs and Bulgars came under Khazar jurisdiction during the
7th century. The Khazars forced some of the Bulgars (led by Asparukh) to move
to modern-day Bulgaria, while other Bulgars fled to the upper Volga River
region where the independent state of Volga Bulgharia was founded. The Khazars
had their greatest power over other tribes in the 9th century, controlling
eastern Slavs, Magyars, Pechenegs, Burtas, North Caucasian Huns, and other
tribes and demanding tribute from them. Because of their jurisdiction over the
area, the Caspian Sea was named the "Khazar Sea", and even today the Azeri,
Turkish, Persian, and Arabic languages designate the Caspian by this term (in
Turkish, "Hazar Denizi"; in Arabic, "Bahr-ul-Khazar"; in Persian, "Daryaye
Khazar").
In addition to their role in indirectly bringing about the creation of the
modern Balkan nation of Bulgaria, the Khazars played an even more significant
role in European affairs. By acting as a buffer state between the Islamic world
and the Christian world, Khazaria prevented Islam from significantly spreading
north of the Caucasus Mountains. This was accomplished thru a series of wars
known as the Arab-Khazar Wars, which took place in the late 7th and early 8th
centuries. The wars established the Caucasus and the city of Derbent as the
boundary between the Khazars and the Arabs.
Cities. The first Khazar capital was Balanjar, which is identified with the
archaeological site Verkhneye Chir-Yurt. During the 720s, the Khazars
transferred their capital to Samandar, a coastal town in the north Caucasus
noted for its beautiful gardens and vineyards. In 750, the capital was moved to
the city of Itil (Atil) on the edge of the Volga River. In fact, the name
"Itil" also designated the Volga River in the medieval age. Itil would remain
the Khazar capital for at least another 200 years. Itil, the administrative
center of the Khazar kingdom, was located adjacent to Khazaran, a major trading
center. In the early 10th century, Khazaran-Itil's population was composed
mostly of Muslims and Jews, but a few Christians lived there also. The capital
city had many mosques. The king's palace was located on an island nearby, which
was surrounded by a brick wall. The Khazars stayed in their capital during the
winter, but they lived in the surrounding steppe in the spring and summer to
cultivate their crops.
The great capital city of modern Ukraine, Kiev, was founded by Khazars or
Hungarians. Kiev is a Turkic place name (Küi = riverbank + ev = settlement). A
community of Jewish Khazars lived in Kiev. Other towns of the Khazars, many of
which also had important Jewish communities, included Kerch (Bospor), Feodosia,
Tamatarkha (Tmutorokan), Chufut-Kale, Sudak, and Sarkel. The local governor of
Samandar was Jewish, and it may be assumed that many of the governors of these
other localities were also Jewish. A major brick fortress was built in 834 in
Sarkel, along the Don River. It was a cooperative Byzantine-Khazar venture, and
Petronas Kamateros, a Greek, served as chief engineer during the construction.
Civilization and trade. The staple foods for the Khazars were rice and fish.
Barley, wheat, melons, hemp, and cucumbers were also harvested in Khazaria.
There were many orchards and fertile regions around the Volga River, which the
Khazars depended upon due to the infrequency of rain. The Khazars hunted foxes,
rabbits, and beavers to supply the large demand for furs.
Khazaria was an important trade route connecting Asia and Europe. For example,
the "Silk Road" was an important link between China, Central Asia, and Europe.
Among the things traded along the Khazar trade routes were silks, furs,
candlewax, honey, jewelry, silverware, coins, and spices. Jewish Radhanite
traders of Persia passed thru Itil on their way to western Europe, China, and
other locations. The Iranian Sogdians also made use of the Silk Road trade, and
their language and runic letters became popular among the Turks. Khazars traded
with the people of Khwarizm (northwest Uzbekistan) and Volga Bulgharia and also
with port cities in Azerbaijan and Persia.
The Khazars' dual-monarchy was a Turkic system under which the kagan was the
supreme king and the bek was the civilian army leader. The kagans were part of
the Turkic Asena ruling family that had provided kagans for other Central Asian
nations in the early medieval period. The Khazar kagans had relations with the
rulers of the Byzantines, Abkhazians, Hungarians, and Armenians. To some
extent, the Khazarian kings influenced the religion of the Khazar people, but
they tolerated those who had different religions than their own, so that even
when these kings adopted Judaism they still let Greek Christians, pagan Slavs,
and Muslim Iranians live in their domains. In the capital city, the Khazars
established a supreme court composed of 7 members, and every religion was
represented on this judicial panel (according to one contemporary Arab
chronicle, the Khazars were judged according to the Torah, while the other
tribes were judged according to other laws).
Ancient communities of Jews existed in the Crimean Peninsula, a fact proven by
much archaeological evidence. It is significant that the Crimea came under the
control of the Khazars. The Crimean Jewish communities were later supplemented
by refugee Jews fleeing the Mazdaq rebellion in Persia, the persecutions of
Byzantine emperors Leo III and Romanus I Lecapenus, and for a variety of other
reasons. Jews came to Khazaria from modern-day Uzbekistan, Armenia, Hungary,
Syria, Turkey, Iraq, and many other places, as documented by al-Masudi, the
Schechter Letter, Saadiah Gaon, and other accounts. The Arabic writer Dimashqi
wrote that these refugee Jews offered their religion to the Khazar Turks and
that the Khazars "found it better than their own and accepted it". The Jewish
Radhanite traders may have also influenced the conversion. Adopting Judaism was
perhaps also a symbol of political independence for Khazaria, holding the
balance of power between Muslim Caliphate and the Christian Byzantine Empire.
Under the leadership of kings Bulan and Obadiah, the standard rabbinical form
of the Jewish religion spread among the Khazars. King Bulan adopted Judaism in
approximately the year 838, after supposedly holding a debate between
representatives of the Jewish, Christian, and Muslim faiths. The Khazar
nobility and many of the common people also became Jews. King Obadiah later
established synagogues and Jewish schools in Khazaria. The books of the
Mishnah, Talmud, and Torah thus became important to many Khazars. Saint Cyril
came to Khazaria in 860 in a Byzantine attempt to convert the Khazars to
Christianity, but he was unsuccessful in converting them away from Judaism. He
did, however, convince many of the Slavs to adopt Christianity. By the 10th
century, the Khazars wrote using Hebrew letters. The major Khazar Jewish
documents from that period were written in the Hebrew language. The Ukrainian
professor Omeljan Pritsak estimated that there were as many as 30,000 Jews in
Khazaria by the 10th century. In 2002, the Swedish numismatist Gert Rispling
discovered a Khazar Jewish coin.
In general, the Khazars may be described as a productive and tolerant people,
in contact with much of the rest of the world and providing goods and services
at home and abroad. Many artifacts from the Khazars, exhibiting their artistic
and industrial talents, have survived to the present day.
Decline and fall. During the 10th century, the East Slavs were united under
Scandinavian overlordship. A new nation, Kievan Rus, was formed by Prince Oleg.
Just as the Khazars had left their mark on other peoples, so too did they
influence the Rus. The Rus and the Hungarians both adopted the dual-kingship
system of the Khazars. The Rus princes even borrowed the title kagan.
Archaeologists recovered a variety of Khazar or Khazar-style objects (including
clothing and pottery) from Viking gravesites in Chernigov, Gnezdovo, Kiev, and
even Birka (Sweden). The residents of Kievan Rus patterned their legal
procedures after the Khazars. In addition, some Khazar words became part of the
old East Slavic language: for example, bogatyr ("brave knight") apparently
derives from the Khazar word baghatur.
The Rus inherited most of the former Khazar lands in the late 10th century and
early 11th century. One of the most devastating defeats came in 965, when Rus
Prince Svyatoslav conquered the Khazar fortress of Sarkel. It is believed that
he conquered Itil two years later, after which he campaigned in the Balkans.
Despite the loss of their nation, the Khazar people did not disappear. Some of
them migrated westward into Hungary, Romania, and Poland, mixing with other
Jewish communities.2
Notes.
1. Many medieval writers attested to the Khazars' Turkic origins
including Theophanes, al-Masudi, Rabbi Yehudah ben Barzillai, Martinus
Oppaviensis, and the anonymous authors of the Georgian Chronicle and Chinese
chronicle T'ang-shu. The Arabic writer al-Masudi in Kitab at-Tanbih wrote:
"...the Khazars... are a tribe of the Turks." (cited in Peter Golden, Khazar
Studies, pp. 57-58). T'ang-shu reads: "K'o-sa [Khazars]... belong to the stock
of the Turks." (cited in Peter Golden, Khazar Studies, p. 58). In his
Chronographia, Theophanes wrote: "During his [Byzantine emperor Heraclius] stay
there [in Lazica], he invited the eastern Turks, who are called Chazars, to
become his allies." (cited in Theophanes, The Chronicle of Theophanes
Confessor, translated by Cyril Mango and Roger Scott, 1997, p. 446). The claim
that the Khazars were Scythians is completely without merit.
2. Timothy Miller discovered that Jewish Khazars were members of the
Jewish community of Pera in the Byzantine Empire around the 11th century (see
Timothy S. Miller, "The Legend of Saint Zotikos According to Constantine
Akropolites," Analecta Bollandiana vol. 112, 1994, pp. 339-376).
Suggestions for further research. Here are some useful published introductory
materials on the Khazars. Some are available from retail bookstores, while
others are only available through libraries.
"The Jews of Khazaria, Second Edition" by Kevin Alan Brook (2006). 10 chapters,
plus glossary, timeline, bibliography, maps, notes. Click here for table of
contents, reviews, and more information.
"The World of the Khazars" edited by Peter B. Golden, Haggai Ben-Shammai, and
András Róna-Tas (2007)
"Khazarian Hebrew Documents of the Tenth Century" by Norman Golb and Omeljan
Pritsak (1982). Russian translation: "Khazarsko-yevreiskie dokumenty X veka" by
Golb and Pritsak, with new section by Vladimir Ia. Petrukhin (1997).
"The History of the Jewish Khazars" by Douglas M. Dunlop (1954, 1967)
"Khazar Studies: An Historico-Philological Inquiry into the Origins of the
Khazars" by Peter B. Golden (1980)
Journal article "Khazaria and Judaism" by Peter B. Golden, in Archivum Eurasiae
Medii Aevi, volume 3, 1983, pages 128 to 156.
"The Kuzari: In Defense of the Despised Faith" by Yehudah HaLevi, translated by
N. Daniel Korobkin (1998)
"The Emergence of Rus 750-1200" by Jonathan Shepard and Simon Franklin (1996)
"A History of Russia, Central Asia, and Mongolia - Volume 1: Inner Eurasia from
Prehistory to the Mongol Empire" by David Christian
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