Hey, Mike, did you know that you and your team of poachers recovered 10
kilos of
Carancas?
http://media.www.browndailyherald.com/media/storage/paper472/news/2008/04/04/Features/Professor.Solves.A.Meteor.Mystery-3304236.shtml
Professor solves a meteor mystery
By: Chaz Firestone
Posted: 4/4/08
Last September, something strange landed near the rural Peruvian
village
of
Carancas. Two months later, so did Peter Schultz.
One was an extraterrestrial fireball that struck the Earth at 10,000
miles per
hour, formed a bubbling crater nearly 50 feet wide and afflicted local
villagers
and livestock with a mysterious illness. The other is the Brown
geologist who
may have figured out why.
The fiery mass shot across the morning sky bursting and crackling like
fireworks, villagers said after the Sept. 15 impact. An explosive crash
tossed
nearby locals to the ground, shattered windows one kilometer away and
kicked up
a massive dust cloud, covering one man from head to toe in a fine white
powder.
Many thought the streaking fireball - brighter than the sun, by some
accounts -
was an aerial attack from neighboring Chile.
Curious shepherds and farmers approached the crash site to find a
smoking crater
reminiscent of a Hollywood film, laden with rocks and stirring with
bubbling
water that emitted a foul vapor. But curiosity turned to fear when
unexplained
symptoms began to crop up in Carancas: headaches, vomiting and skin
lesions
struck more than 150 villagers, Peru's Ministry of Health stated days
later.
Locals reported that their animals lost their appetites and bled from
their
noses. Children were restless and cried through the night.
But according to Schultz, the professor of geological sciences who
visited the
site last December, the true mystery in Carancas is how any of this
happened in
the first place.
Sophisticated theory and conventional wisdom have long agreed that most
meteors
break into fragments and fizzle out before they can reach the Earth's
surface.
Even those large and durable enough to make it through the atmosphere
hit the
ground as ghosts of their former selves, "plopping out of the sky and
forming a
bullet hole in the Earth," Schultz said. "This meteor crashed into the
Earth at
three kilometers per second, exploded and buried itself into the
ground."
Last month, Schultz delivered a highly anticipated lecture at the 39th
Lunar and
Planetary Science Conference in League City, Texas. And if he's right,
the bold
theory he proposed there may shake loose a "gut response" entrenched
within the
geological, physical and astronomical sciences: "Carancas simply should
not have
happened."
A Web of speculation
The handful of shepherds who happened to lead their Alpaca herds near
the arroyo
that day may have been the first humans ever to witness an explosive
meteor
impact. But the rest of the world quickly got its chance, if
vicariously,
through a flurry of activity in the blogosphere.
Hundreds of scientists, journalists and captivated amateurs weighed in
on the
bizarre events as they unfolded, offering scores of pet theories and
radically
revising them as more information streamed in from Peru.
Pravda, a Russian online newspaper born out of a print version run by
the
country's former Communist Party, ran the headline "American spy
satellite
downed in Peru as U.S. nuclear attack on Iran thwarted" five days after
the
impact. The story attributes the villagers' illness to radiation
poisoning from
the satellite's plutonium power generator.
Other proposed explanations were less sensational. Nevadan wildlife
biologist
and amateur geologist David Syzdek wrote a Sept. 18 blog post titled
"Meteorite
strike in Peru gassing villagers? Maybe not." In it, he proposed that a
mud
volcano producing toxic gases was responsible for both the illness and
the
crater.
"The Andes are very active geologically so I think there is a good
possibility
that this crater was caused by an outburst of geothermal activity," he
wrote.
As for the blinding light shooting across the sky, Syzdek chalked it up
to
coincidence.
"Fireballs are quite common," he wrote. "One possible scenario is that
the
people who saw the fireball just happened on a recently formed mud
volcano while
they were out looking for the fireball impact site."
Though Pravda and Syzdek drew radically different conclusions from the
reports,
what they shared with each other, many bloggers and even some
scientists
was a
healthy skepticism about reports coming out of Peru. Pravda and Syzdek
both
pointed out in their posts that an explosion powerful enough to create
such a
large crater would be equivalent to 1,000 tons of TNT, or a tactical
nuclear
strike.
"When I first saw the news reports, they just didn't seem right,"
Syzdek
later
said in an interview. "Explosive impacts like this just don't happen."
'A hyperspeed curveball'
Gonzalo Tancredi, a Uruguayan astronomer who collaborated with Schultz
in
Carancas, said initial reports of the impact confounded amateurs and
Ph.D.s
alike. Bewildered scientists even entertained the possibility of a hoax
as
rumors floated around the scientific community.
"At the beginning, there were some doubts about what really happened
there,"
Tancredi said. "We thought maybe it was a meteor fall or maybe it was
something
else, even something fake."
But when Tancredi visited Carancas a few weeks later, what he observed
silenced
the conspiracies and pointed unequivocally to one conclusion.
Tancredi interviewed locals, who reported a large mushroom cloud that
formed
over the crater and compression waves that knocked villagers to the
ground. He
also found pieces of soil and rock that had been launched over three
football
fields from the crater - one piece even pierced the roof of a barn 100
meters
away. Combined with analyses of infrasound detectors and the patterns
of
crater
"ejecta," the evidence pointed to a genuine and very powerful meteorite
impact.
But the question that remained on everyone's mind was how the meteor
got
there
at all - a scientific riddle that was made even more challenging by
Michael
Farmer.
Farmer is a controversial figure in the geological community. He is a
meteorite
hunter, a poacher of alien rocks who travels to impact sites around the
world -
usually the "bullet hole in the Earth" type mentioned by Schultz - and
collects
whatever he can find, often brushing up against authorities and other
hunters.
Meteorite hunting is Farmer's full-time job; he profits from selling
what he
finds.
Farmer, who said he is "totally self-taught" when it comes to meteors,
said he
was as skeptical as the rest when he first heard the reports coming out
of Peru
while on hunt in Spain. But 16 days later, he and his partners found
themselves
staring into the Carancas impact crater, the first Americans on the
scene - and
they stumbled on an extraterrestrial gold mine.
"We got there and just started picking up pieces off the ground,"
Farmer
said.
"The entire ground was white, just white powder which was all meteor."
Farmer and his team eventually accumulated 10 kilograms of small
meteorite
fragments and sold them to private collectors and universities for an
astronomical $100 per gram.
But despite his rocky past with the geological community, Farmer and
his
expensive fragments made a priceless contribution to scientists. Within
minutes
of arriving on the scene, Farmer discovered that the Carancas meteorite
was a
chondrite, or stony meteorite, as opposed to an iron meteorite.
Though far more common than iron meteorites, chondrites are highly
vulnerable to
ablation - the cracking, eroding and even exploding that occurs when a
meteor
enters the atmosphere and undergoes extreme changes in temperature and
pressure.
As a result, chondrites are far less likely than the more durable iron
meteorites to make it to the Earth's surface in large pieces - which
makes the
Carancas meteorite all the more baffling.
"For a while, the only information we were getting was from Farmer's
Web
site,"
Schultz said. "This was not the type of object you'd expect to get
through the
atmosphere in a tight clump."
With most pieces of the geological puzzle on the table, the stage was
set for
Schultz to visit the site for himself. But when he arrived there in
December
with a Brown graduate student, Tancredi and Peruvian astrophysicist
Jose
Ishitsuka, a budding geologist actually made the crucial discovery.
Scott Harris
GS said he collected some soil samples "initially out of curiosity" to
look for
evidence of shock deformation, which occurs when an object rapidly
decelerates
in cases like impacts or explosions. When Harris looked at the material
under a
microscope, he found tiny mineral grains that had turned into glass
because of
heat and massive shock forces, indicating a very high-speed impact.
Here
was yet
another mystifying piece of evidence.
"At the minimum," Harris said, "this would support a velocity of three
kilometers per second - a real high-velocity explosion instead of just
a
plop in
the ground."
By this time, more reputable scientific theories of the impact had
supplanted
the initial speculation, the most popular of which came from a group in
Germany
and Russia. They proposed that the meteor entered the Earth's
atmosphere
at a
very shallow angle, allowing it to reach the surface gradually and
avoid
a
sudden increase in pressure - "the difference between diving in and
doing a
belly flop," Schultz said.
But their theory's relatively low impact velocity of 180 meters per
second, or
about 400 miles per hour, was consistent with every piece of evidence
but
Harris', which pointed to a velocity of about 10,000 miles per hour at
impact.
"This was nature's way of throwing us a curveball," Schultz said. "A
hyperspeed
curveball."
Changing shape, changing theory
Back home in Providence, Schultz was now faced with the task of fitting
the
puzzle pieces together into a cohesive theory. And to do it, he looked
to
Earth's closest planetary neighbor, Venus.
"Our models make predictions about what kind of objects can make it to
the
surface at what velocity, and the Carancas meteor isn't usually one of
them,"
Schultz said. "But Venus has a much denser atmosphere and we still find
craters
on its surface. How did they get there? I think it might be the same
thing
here."
To explain the alternative theory he developed, Schultz compared a
typical
meteor's descent to a waterskier behind a boat.
"Normally when you're on the outside of the wake, you're pushed out
further,"
Schultz said. "From my experience looking at Venus, I realized that
there was a
certain condition where the waterskier will stay inside the wake, and
actually
get pushed inward."
At last month's Lunar and Planetary Science Conference, Schultz
proposed
that
the meteor did break up into pieces, but shock waves created by the
speeding
mass may have kept them close together. And since the meteor descended
as a
clump of fragments instead of one large piece, it reshaped itself along
the way
to become more aerodynamic, like a football or a javelin cutting
through
the air
instead of a poorly shaped hunk of rock.
"It's like having a Volkswagen turn into a Ford Taurus," Schultz said,
adding
that this sort of reshaping is well known to geologists who study
islands and
land-water interaction. "If you put a big pile of dirt in a stream,
that
mound
will eventually turn into a teardrop shape. It's trying to minimize the
friction."
Tancredi, who co-authored the paper with Schultz, Harris and Ishitsuka,
said
Schultz's theory is gaining popularity but is still being debated, even
among
the group that proposed it.
"This is the hot question right now," he said. "We still have to
demonstrate
that this phenomenon is possible."
In the meantime, another hot question had remained without a definitive
answer -
the etiology of the strange illness that afflicted the people of
Carancas. But
the group may solve that mystery, too.
Schultz, Harris and Tancredi all dismissed the possibility of the
meteorite
emitting harmful gases that would sicken villagers. Instead, they
proposed a
simpler cause: the power of the mind.
The meteorite impact sent out a powerful compression wave that knocked
nearby
villagers and animals to the ground and injected the soil with air,
which later
bubbled up through the crater. Shepherds and cattle may also have
breathed in
the thick dust thrown up by the crash and smelled the sulfurous gases
produced
as water reacted with iron sulfide in the meteor.
But what the group thinks later spread through the town was not
disease,
but
panic.
"We think it was probably more of a psychological response," Harris
said, adding
that commonplace symptoms like headaches and nausea could easily have
been
caused by the disorienting impact and then mirrored by frightened
villagers.
Harris also admitted the possibility of the meteorite releasing arsenic
deposits, which are known to exist in Peru, but said it would be very
unlikely
for those gases to have caused the illness.
"In order to really get arsenic poisoning, you'd need high
concentrations," he
said. "You'd have to be there inhaling the vapor filled with the stuff
right
after the meteorite hit."
Poisonous or not, the Carancas meteorite could have important
implications for
public safety. Tancredi said there's no reason an impact like this
couldn't
happen in a major city, wiping out a few city blocks. He also pointed
out that
today's most advanced meteor detectors aren't nearly powerful enough to
detect
an object as small as the Carancas meteorite.
"Near-Earth detectors detect objects that could create a global
catastrophe,
something maybe a kilometer across," he said. "We don't have any kind
of
technology that could detect this object before reaching the
atmosphere,
so it
will not be possible to know when and where one of these objects could
strike
again."
But Schultz said the most important lesson to learn from Carancas is
that the
foundation of good science is hard empirical evidence, even - and
especially -
when it contradicts established principle.
"We tried to understand what the rocks told us rather than looking at
the
theory," he said. "Nature trumps theory, every time."
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