A *magazine* is a periodical publication, generally published on a regular schedule (often weekly or monthly), containing a variety of content. They are generally financed by advertising, purchase price, prepaid subscriptions, or by a combination of the three.
In the technical sense a *journal* has continuous pagination throughout a volume. Thus, *Bloomberg Businessweek*, which starts each issue anew with page one, is a magazine, but the *Journal of Business Communication*, which continues the same sequence of pagination throughout the coterminous year, is a journal. Some professional or trade publications are also peer-reviewed, for example the *Journal of Accountancy*. Non-peer-reviewed academic or professional publications are generally *professional magazines*. That a publication calls itself a *journal* does not make it a journal in the technical sense; *The Wall Street Journal* is actually a newspaper. The word "magazine" derives from Arabic makhāzin (مخازن), the broken plural of makhzan (مخزن) meaning "depot, storehouse" (originally military storehouse); that comes to English via Middle French magasin and Italian magazzino.[1] In its original sense, the word "magazine" referred to a storage space or device.[1] In the case of written publication, it refers to a collection of written articles. This explains why magazine publications share the term with storage units for military equipment such as gunpowder, artillery and firearm magazines, and in French and Russian (adopted from French as магазин), retailers such as department stores.[2] Print magazines can be distributed through the mail, through sales by newsstands, bookstores, or other vendors, or through free distribution at selected pick-up locations. Electronic distribution methods can include social media, email, news aggregators, and visibility of a publication's website and search engine results. The traditional subscription business models for distribution fall into three main categories: In this model, the magazine is sold to readers for a price, either on a per-issue basis or by subscription, where an annual fee or monthly price is paid and issues are sent by post to readers. Paid circulation allows for defined readership statistics.[3][4] This means that there is no cover price and issues are given away, for example in street dispensers, airline, or included with other products or publications. Because this model involves giving issues away to unspecific populations, the statistics only entail the number of issues distributed, and not who reads them.[*citation needed*] This is the model used by many trade magazines (industry-based periodicals) distributed only to qualifying readers, often for free and determined by some form of survey. Because of costs (e.g., printing and postage) associated with the medium of print, publishers may not distribute free copies to everyone who requests one (unqualified leads); instead, they operate under controlled circulation, deciding who may receive free subscriptions based on each person's qualification as a member of the trade (and likelihood of buying, for example, likelihood of having corporate purchasing authority, as determined from job title). This allows a high level of certainty that advertisements will be received by the advertiser's target audience,[5] and it avoids wasted printing and distribution expenses. This latter model was widely used before the rise of the World Wide Web and is still employed by some titles. For example, in the United Kingdom, a number of computer-industry magazines use this model, including *Computer Weekly* and *Computing*, and in finance, *Waters Magazine*. For the global media industry, an example would be *VideoAge International*.[*citation needed*] The earliest example of magazines was *Erbauliche Monaths Unterredungen*, a literary and philosophy magazine, which was launched in 1663 in Germany.[6] *The Gentleman's Magazine*, first published in 1741 in London was the first general-interest magazine.[7] Edward Cave, who edited *The Gentleman's Magazine* under the pen name "Sylvanus Urban", was the first to use the term "magazine", on the analogy of a military storehouse,[8] the quote being: "a monthly collection, to treasure up as in a magazine".[9] Founded by Herbert Ingram in 1842, *The Illustrated London News* was the first illustrated weekly news magazine.[7] The oldest consumer magazine still in print is *The Scots Magazine*,[10] which was first published in 1739, though multiple changes in ownership and gaps in publication totalling over 90 years weaken that claim. *Lloyd's List* was founded in Edward Lloyd's England coffee shop in 1734; and though its online platform is still updated daily it has not been published as a magazine since 2013 after 274 years.[11] Under the Ancien Rgime, the most prominent magazines were Mercure de France, Journal des savans, founded in 1665 for scientists, and Gazette de France, founded in 1631. Jean Loret was one of France's first journalists. He disseminated the weekly news of music, dance and Parisian society from 1650 until 1665 in verse, in what he called a *gazette burlesque*, assembled in three volumes of *La Muse historique* (1650, 1660, 1665). The French press lagged a generation behind the British, for they catered to the needs of the aristocracy, while the newer British counterparts were oriented toward the middle and working classes.[12] Magazines flourished after Napoleon left in 1815. Most were based in Paris and most emphasized literature, poetry and stories. They served religious, cultural and political communities. In times of political crisis they expressed and helped shape the views of their readership and thereby were major elements in the changing political culture.[15] For example, there were eight Catholic periodicals in 1830 in Paris. None were officially owned or sponsored by the Church and they reflected a range of opinion among educated Catholics about current issues, such as the 1830 July Revolution that overthrew the Bourbon monarchy. Several were strong supporters of the Bourbon kings, but all eight ultimately urged support for the new government, putting their appeals in terms of preserving civil order. They often discussed the relationship between church and state. Generally, they urged priests to focus on spiritual matters and not engage in politics. Historian M. Patricia Dougherty says this process created a distance between the Church and the new monarch and enabled Catholics to develop a new understanding of church-state relationships and the source of political authority.[16] The *Moniteur Ottoman* was a gazette written in French and first published in 1831 on the order of Mahmud II. It was the first official gazette of the Ottoman Empire, edited by Alexandre Blacque at the expense of the Sublime Porte. Its name perhaps referred to the French newspaper *Le Moniteur Universel*. It was issued weekly. *Takvim-i vekayi* was published a few months later, intended as a translation of the *Moniteur* into Ottoman Turkish. After having been edited by former Consul for Denmark "*M. Franceschi*", and later on by "*Hassuna de Ghiez*", it was lastly edited by Lucien Rouet. However, facing the hostility of embassies, it was closed in the 1840s.[17] Publishing was a very expensive industry in colonial times. Paper and printer's ink were taxed imported goods and their quality was inconsistent. Interstate tariffs and a poor road system hindered distribution, even on a regional scale. Many magazines were launched, most failing within a few editions, but publishers kept trying. Benjamin Franklin is said to have envisioned one of the first magazines of the American colonies in 1741, the *General Magazine and Historical Chronicle*. The *Pennsylvania Magazine*, edited by Thomas Paine, ran only for a short time but was a very influential publication during the Revolutionary War. The final issue containing the text of the Declaration of Independence was published in 1776.[18] In the mid-19th century, monthly magazines gained popularity. They were general interest to begin, containing some news, vignettes, poems, history, political events, and social discussion.[19] Unlike newspapers, they were more of a monthly record of current events along with entertaining stories, poems, and pictures. The first periodicals to branch out from news were *Harper's* and *The Atlantic*, which focused on fostering the arts.[20] Both *Harper's* and *The Atlantic* persist to this day, with *Harper's* being a cultural magazine and The Atlantic focusing mainly on world events. Early publications of *Harper's* even held famous works such as early publications of *Moby Dick* or famous events such as the laying of the world's first transatlantic telegraph cable; however, the majority of early content was trickle down from British events.[21] The development of the magazines stimulated an increase in literary criticism and political debate, moving towards more opinionated pieces from the objective newspapers.[20] The increased time between prints and the greater amount of space to write provided a forum for public arguments by scholars and critical observers.[22] The early periodical predecessors to magazines started to evolve to modern definition in the late 1800s.[22] Works slowly became more specialized and the general discussion or cultural periodicals were forced to adapt to a consumer market which yearned for more localization of issues and events.[20] The journalists who specialized in exposing waste, corruption, and scandal operated at the state and local level, like Ray Stannard Baker, George Creel, and Brand Whitlock. Others, including Lincoln Steffens, exposed political corruption in many large cities; Ida Tarbell went after John D. Rockefeller's Standard Oil Company. Samuel Hopkins Adams in 1905 showed the fraud involved in many patent medicines, Upton Sinclair's 1906 novel *The Jungle* gave a horrid portrayal of how meat was packed, and, also in 1906, David Graham Phillips unleashed a blistering indictment of the U.S. Senate. Roosevelt gave these journalists their nickname when he complained that they were not being helpful by raking up all the muck.[25][26] -- You received this message because you are subscribed to the Google Groups "opencog" group. To unsubscribe from this group and stop receiving emails from it, send an email to [email protected]. To view this discussion on the web visit https://groups.google.com/d/msgid/opencog/f4567fa8-ea29-4dec-8791-7019ff27ddedn%40googlegroups.com.
