David,JFS> Until 1270, bell ringers depended on sun dials and hour glasses. But by 1300, every town in Europe of any size had a church with a clock that automatically rang the bells. DP> Do you have a reference for that? I recommend a rather short book (245 pp.): Crosby, Alfred W. (1997) The Measure of Reality: Quantification and Western Society, 1250-1600, Cambridge University Press. Following are two reviews of the book: https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1997-01-26-bk-22112-story.html https://www.stolaf.edu/other/ql/crosby.html There is, of course, much more to be said about all these issues. Quantification alone would not be sufficient for the great advances that took place during those centuries, but without quantification the advances in science would not have been possible. The great universities that were established in the 12th c and the printing press in the 15th c were also essential. John
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