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[*]{*}[*]{*}[*]{*}[*]{*}[*]{*}[*]{*}[*]{*}[*]{*}[*]{*}[*]{*}[*]{*}[*]{*} TRAIL OF THE AROMA: WHIFF OF MANY INFLUENCES ON GOA'S EXOTIC FOOD Goan food drew on different influences -- Arab, Konkan, Malabar, Portuguese, Brazilian, French, African and even Chinese to name a few. There are many dishes common to Goa, the rest of the Konkan, Malaysia, Macau, Portugal, Brazil and Sri Lanka. Goan food has a global touch. The Portuguese were responsible to a great extent for these influences from Europe, Africa, Americas and some other areas of Asia. As result of Portuguese influence Goan cuisine has gone through a series of adaptations, assimilations and 'Westernization'. By Fatima da Silva Gracias fatimgra8 at dataone.in Both eastern and western culture parleyed for a long period of time in Goa, the headquarters of the Estado da India Portuguesa. This encounter left its impact on people’s lifestyle and brought about a dietary revolution. People of all three communities in Goa -- Hindus, Christians and Muslims -- have contributed to local food, with influences from the outside world more evident among the Christians community than the other two. Vasco da Gama's journey to India in 1498 led to significant changes in the culinary art of many countries. There was transfer of products, circulation of recipes and food habits from the New World (the Americas), Europe, places en route as well as from areas under the Portuguese control or places where they had settlements like in Africa and Asia. Archival sources in Goa and elsewhere gives us an idea of the extent of these transfers. These were, very often, carried by ships of the Carreira da India that came annually from Portugal to India via Africa, and in their outward journeys touched Brazil. The Portuguese acted as facilitators in this exchange, with their political control over some areas around the world, enabling them to introduce changes more easily. Prof. M. N. Pearson argues that Portugal played the role of a conveyer belt to the major markets in northern and central Europe. The Portuguese brought goods to India for their own consumption, trade or as a part of their culture. From the routes discovered by the Portuguese came a host of plants and roots producing luscious fruits and vegetables never seen or heard before. Such as the potato, tomato, cashew nut, pimento, papaya, passion fruit, pumpkin, aubergine, pineapple and guava. These continue to enrich our diet. >From Mozambique in Africa, among other things, was introduced a recipe on how to prepare Galinha (Frango) Piri-piri (Chicken Piri-piri) that was probably brought by slaves, African soldiers or Goan migrants who visited their homeland at regular intervals. Fruits, vegetables and herbs like Cilantro from across the seas have added flavour to Goan cuisine, especially to Hindu cuisine. It has made food more aesthetic when used as a garnish. >From Goa, fruit bearing plants such as mangoes, coconuts and spices made their way to places as far as Brazil via rulers, traders, missionaries and, in more recent times, Goan migrants. These products enriched the culinary art and economy of various regions. After Gama's journey to India, European markets were flooded with spices which not only added flavour and gave an exotic taste to food and wines but also helped preserve meat at a time when refrigeration was unknown. Spices were also used in making perfumes and in the materia medica. Subsequent to Gama's journey spices began to be used widely in British, Swiss and French cuisine. This was particularly true of peppercorn known as pimenta, pimenta da India (in Portugal) or as pimenta do reino ( Brazil). The term pimenta in Goa has a different connotation. Portugal internally did not consume much spice, but other European countries did. Spices revolutionized their cooking. REACTIONS FROM THE PEOPLE Initially people reacted diversely to the introduction of new food products in both the worlds. In Europe, for instance spices were considered by some as a status mark, fashionable, exotic, others felt the condiments made dishes inedible, dangerous for health even poisonous. Spices and fruits from India had significant impact on cooking in some parts of Brazil. Orlando Ribeiro in his Originalidade da Expanção Portuguesa says “há uma cozinha do norte do Brazil que e em grande parte de herança India, há uma cozinha goesa que é Hindu na sua origem”. Strong seasoning with spices in the early stages of its introduction had adverse impact on people of Brazil. Slaves and masters alike suffered from ailments of digestive track. In Goa, since a section of the population considered some fruits polluting and fleshy, these were not consumed for a long time and even when finally accepted, not included in the "food for Gods". The use of other products depended on the cost, availability, taste at particular point of time or even what was is in vogue in culinary art. Before the arrival of the Portuguese in 1510, the food habits of majority of the people in Goa were more or less uniform, although there might have been some influences from earlier rulers. A variety of food was prepared for different occasions -- food for daily consumption, festive occasions, food for the gods, pre-wedding rituals, ancestors, dead, poor and food according to the season. Food differed to some degree according to caste and communities in Goa. Food sometimes created a distinction among the people. CHANGES IN DIETARY HABITS During the Portuguese period, some traditional habits were discarded, new ones added and recipes circulated and modified to suit the needs of the rulers and the ruled or the availability of certain ingredients. Many new food products and customs percolated in the Goan society. Among these was the use of potato by the people of all communities in making savouries such as samosas, batawadas, potato baji, pao baji as well as in meat and fish recipes. The new food products brought to India changed the lifestyle of the people, sometimes in a subtle way. Many of the food producing plants become an integral part of the local flora, altering the economy and the food habits of the people. Few realize today, for instance, that chillies which are widely used in Goan and Indian cuisine were a stranger to our continent until the Portuguese introduced them from the Americas. Chillies, particularly the dried red variety are used to add flavour, pungency, texture, marinate meats and fish and to make the world famous Goan humon -- prawn/fish curry and other curries. They are also used in tempero (a paste of spices, chilies, garlic, turmeric ground with vinegar) popularly known among Goans as recheio or recheio-masala to stuff fish, make the famous Goan pork sorpatel (sarapatel), prawn or fish or pork balchao, while the green variety is used to make chutneys, pickles, give pungency and taste to vegetables, meat and fish. Without the zing of chilies, our curries, gravy, savouries and pickles would have less flavour, colour and spice. AGENTS OF PROPOPAGATION Rulers, merchants, missionaries, casados, Portuguese women in India including orfas del rei ("orphans of the king"), degredados (exiles) and slaves, all played different roles in introducing various types of food, knowledge of food habits and for circulating recipes. It has often been pointed out that the nuns of the Convento da Santa Monica in the old city of Goa were responsible for introducing Portuguese recipes and for creating the Indo-Portuguese recipes -- particularly sweets like dedos da dama, petas de freiras (similar to the French sweet pets de none), pasteis de natas, pasteis de Santa Clara. These conventual sweets are still served as desserts in some Goan Christian homes on festive occasions. Some of the Indo-Portuguese recipes created by them are a blend of Portuguese and Goan recipes or Portuguese recipes adjusted to meet the needs of the time and availability of ingredients. In addition to sweets, the Portuguese brought to India their guisados, caldeiradas and assados prepared with fish and meats. Not all food products, plants and dietary habits were easily assimilated. Consequently, various methods were devised to introduce food habits, products and recipes -- regulations, treaties, force and instruction issued by the Portuguese government, Church and its agency, the Inquisition. The non-eating of pork, for instance, was at one time an offence punishable by the Inquisition. New food habits were also introduced through interaction, miscegenation, marriages, religion and migration. At times new food habits become popular because they were part of Christian cuisine or had been brought in by the rulers. Afonso de Albuquerque, the conqueror of Goa, was responsible for initiating Politica dos Casamentos (a mixed marriage policy) between Portuguese men and local women in Portuguese India. This policy of mixed marriages must have surely influenced the food habits of the mixed race. Similarly, the Commercial Treaty of 1878 (Anglo-Portuguese Treaty) with British India brought new elements into the diet. Prior to this treaty a majority of the people had never heard of coffee, tea and sugar. As these items became more easily available they formed an integral part of the diet of the upper classes at breakfast, after meals and as a mid-afternoon beverage. The Portuguese used regulations to introduce new food habits or to stop those that persisted after a section of population converted to Christianity. Conversion forced the Goan Christians to give up some food habits, adapt new dietary habits or ingredients and introduce radical changes in food processing. The Church and its agencies issued at times decrees to prevent or to introduce food habits. For example, in 1736, the Inquisition issued a decree banning Christians from cooking their rice without salt. Both this and chewing of pan (leaf and betel) were considered as habits of the 'gentios' (non-Christians). Evidently, the Portuguese feared that continuation of such pre-Christians practices among the new converts might weaken their religious hold over Christians. The Portuguese also used food habits based on religion to distinguish between Hindus and Christians and again, between upper and lower class Christians. The rulers introduced the practice of eating meats -- beef and pork -- among the converts. Meat was popular with upper class Christians. Various travellers speak about the viands on the tables of the ruling class. Mandelslo, the Ambassador of Duke of Holstein who visited Goa in the seventeenth century describes the large spread by the Portuguese gentlemen consisting of variety of pork, beef and poultry. A glance at the books of the expenses of Conventos Extintos in the old city of Goa gives us an idea about the amount of meat consumed by the inhabitants of these convents. Regulamento do Hospital Militar de Nova Goa also provides information about chicken and beef being consumed there. In the early nineteenth century, Cottineau de Klougen, during his visit to Goa, noted that the poor did not eat meat more than three or four times a year, a luxury which they obviously could not afford on daily basis. However, on festive occasions such as Christmas, Easter, weddings or feast of a village patron saint large number of Christians irrespective of their social and economic status would consume meat, particularly pork. Pork became the centre piece of Goan Christian cuisine on festive occasions in Old Conquest territories -- Bardes, Salcete, Ilhas (Tiswadi). No meal would be complete without pork meat with at least a sarapatel or a vindalho and particularly, among the upper strata a roast pigling and pork balchao. However, some pre-conversion practices prevented many Christians in the New Conquests from consuming meat, particularly beef and pork. Instead, they occasionally consumed poultry and mutton, which incidentally is also eaten by non-Christians in Goa. The Portuguese and the Goan emigrant community took away their food habits elsewhere. Goans carried recipes how to prepare sarapatel, Goan sausages and prawn curry to various places in British India, Burma, Aden, Australia, Canada, Europe, the Americas, Africa to name a few. Many of these food products are today sold in some famous food markets abroad. Could the Portuguese Canja de galinha originated in Goa from the Goan canja or kunjee? In Goa, this rice gruel is eaten for breakfast, as mid day re-enforcement or as light diet when sick. NEW RECIPES AND FLAVOUR Several Portuguese recipes in their original form found their way in the Goan cuisine, specially sweets such as Pasteis de nata, pudim de ovos, fios de ovos, bolo de namorados, pao-de-lo. A durable change, first introduced by the Portuguese to Goa, other parts of India, Malaysia and Macau was oven-baked bread that a boy from the padeiro (baker) still delivers every morning. Padeiros (Poder in Konkani) have always been from Christian community, a majority hailing from the Old Conquests, mainly from Salcete. Pao (bread) or pau as known in Konkani, though not a staple food has now become popular with all communities. To begin with, pao was a part of the Christian upper class diet eaten for breakfast, with mid-afternoon tea or to accompany meat, fish or vegetable dish during the main meals. Various versions of the wheat bread have been introduced in Goa. The Portuguese introduced 'sura' (palm toddy) instead of the yeast in the process of fermentation in Goa, particularly in the making of wheat bread. Sura was also used to make vinegar introduced in the Goan Christian cuisine by the Portuguese for adding flavour, provide a sour taste and as a preservative in meat, fish, vegetable and pickle recipes. Hindus and Muslims in Goa do not use vinegar in their cuisine. Sura was also used to make vinegar in the Christian cuisine of Daman, Kerala and few more places. As result of the new habits in their gastronomy, Christians in some cases had to give up or modify their pre-conversion dietary habits. INFLUENCE ON RELIGION, CUSTOMS Religion and customs also forced Goans to rename some of their recipes or add different ingredients. Goans, mainly Hindus, did not easily accept all the products brought to India. For instance, the Hindus, due to religious beliefs and at times superstitions, resisted the use of certain types of vegetables and other food products in their cuisine. They avoided the great Mediterranean trilogy of bread, wine and meat for a long time. PAo was not consumed both because it contained sura and probably because majority of bakers were Christians and it was a European product. Today, however, people of all communities consume bread, though some Hindus abstain on religious occasions. In the early period, the Hindus of Goa did not eat tomato. Even today, most Goan Hindu families do not cook tomato, aubergine, radish and papaya on festive religious occasions when they prepare "food for the Gods" since these vegetables are from "across the seas" and considered polluting. Tomato, a fleshy red fruit is associated with blood, considered polluting. Circumstances forced the Hindu in Goa to eat tomatoes in the early decades of the twentieth century. Apparently, during an epidemic of typhoid, patients were prescribed cod liver oil. Because of its unpleasant taste, physicians advised them to mix it with tomato juice. Subsequently, Hindus started using tomato in their food. In certain parts of the New Conquest territories tomato was not used until the second half the twentieth century. In these areas tomato was neither easily available nor did many know its use. Today, tomato is an integral part of the Hindu diet although not used when food is prepared as part of ritual offering to the Gods. Kotkotem, a dish made of several vegetables, pulses and coconut is a favourite dish among the Goan Hindus. Nevertheless, on ritual occasions Kotkotem has to be prepared without tomato, aubergine and other vegetables produced from imported plants. Meat became a regular part of Christian cuisine after conversion. However, there was sanctions on eating meat during certain periods among Christians in Goa -- viz Lent -- and instead people were encouraged to eat fish. Fortunately, being a coastal area, fish was easily available and cheap. At other times religion was used to introduce some food practices or to end others as in the case of boiling rice with salt. These food habits based on religion were then used by the Portuguese to create new distinction between Hindus and Christians or Christians of different classes. For instance, Christians use vinegar to give a sour taste to meat and fish preparations while non-Christians in Goa use sour lime or tamarind pulp for the same purpose. Religion also influenced the introduction of wine since it enjoyed religious sanction due to its association with Christianity. Considered the blood of Christ, it plays an important role in the liturgy. Furthermore, it was believed that wine, if drunk moderately, gave strength to the body. The consumption of wine was not approved by the religion and customs of the Hindus and Muslims. The Christmas confectionary of Goan Christians that forms a part of consuada draws from many cultures -- Portuguese, Hindu, Arabic, Malaysian and Brazilian. The Hindu "cookery of the Gods" has its influence on Christmas confectionary in the form of neureos, kalkal and shankarpalis. HOW FOOD GOT MODIFIED Food and recipes were not always introduced in their original form, and instead modified according to the availability of the ingredients, climatic conditions and local tastes. Often, the Portuguese carried in ingredients from their country. As long as these lasted, recipes were prepared in their original version; but once they ran out, local substitutes were introduced. For instance, almonds or walnuts in Portuguese recipes were often replaced by cashew nuts and coconut. Almonds were not easily available in Goa and prohibitively expensive. In the preparation of Pasteis de Santa Clara or bolo Sans Rival, almonds were substituted with cashew nuts and almond essence. From Arabia via Portugal came the marzipan. Apparently, when the Arabs ruled the Iberian Peninsula they brought marzipan made out of almond paste and sugar. Galinha Piri-piri a grilled dish from Mozambique and other areas of Africa underwent changes when brought to Goa. It came to be known as Galinha Cafreal and it was no longer grilled but fried. Sometimes, recipes were modified to suite the palate of the people or add flavour, as in the case of sarabulho, vindalho, cabidela and feijoada made of pork. These recipes brought by the Portuguese are also popular in Brazil, Macau and Mozambique. Sarabulho in its original form consisted of meat, liver, ears, tails and limbs and did not contain much spice or no spices at all. Goan Christians often discarded the ears, tail and limbs, added tempero paste and called it Sarapate, sorpotel or sorpatel. It is a popular in the Goan Christian cuisine on festive occasion and even today many in the Goan diaspora prepare it. Goa's famous sausages are a modified version of Portuguese chourico. Vindalho prepared in Goa is different from the one prepared in Mangalore where it is known as vindalo. Bebinca, the queen of Goan Christian dessert on festive occasions, is perhaps a modified version of bebingka made in Malaysia, Philippines and Indonesia. At other times, the original name was retained but new ingredients were added or substituted. In Goa, flour was often substituted by semolina, cashew nuts were used in place of dry fruits (as in the case of Bolo Rei and Bolo Podre) and jaggery replaced sugar in preparation of a variety of sweets. In the preparation of Bolo Podre, coconut was added and in Bolo Rei flour was substituted by semolina. This way new recipes were created or adopted giving rise to a new Indo-Portuguese cuisine. At times, local names were changed when a section of inhabitants converted to Christianity even though the ingredients and the method of cooking remained the same. This was probably the case with black Dodol -- a kind of halwa (sweet) prepared with rice flour, black jaggery and coconut juice on festive occasion by Christians of Goa, Kerala, SriLanka and other areas. Goan Christians prepare Dodol or Kali Dodol (as known in Sri Lanka) with black jaggery made of coconut palm. The sweet is no different from various halwas prepared by Hindus in Goa, the only difference being the colour of the jaggery and change of name. The Hindus call it Alvo and use a lighter colour jaggery made of sugarcane. OTHER SETTLEMENTS' INFLUENCES Could the Portuguese cuisine have left its influence on other parts of India besides those that were under direct control of Portugal? As for example, in areas where they carried trade or had trading stations in India? There is need to research on the influence of Portuguese cuisine on food habits of Gujarat, Bengal and few other places where the Portuguese had trading stations and missions. We know that besides Goa, Portuguese cuisine has influenced food habits of other territories under their control such as Daman, Diu, Chaul, Bassein (Vasai) parts of Bombay and Kerala. There were Portuguese settlers in these areas-- Portuguese men married to native women, orfAs del rei and other Portuguese women. As in Goa, there was a casado population in Cochin who were involved in trade and other business. In 1635, according to information available there were about 300 casados brancos (whites) and 200 casados pretos or mixed in addition to the white members of religious orders. Portuguese traders lived in Gujarat from early sixteenth century mainly in the town of Cambay. In 1572, when Akbar arrived in Cambay there were 50 to 60 Portuguese, some had already fled the place due to fear of war. In 1594 about 100 Portuguese families or their descendents lived in Cambay. Many of these settled at Cambay permanently and married local women, which gave birth to a Eurasian community. In the same century, arouund 100 casados lived at Sao Tome of Meliapor. J.J.A. Campos says that there were numerous communities of Portuguese descendants known as Feringhis or Luso-Indians in Hoogly, Chandernagore, Bandel, Chittagong (in former East Bengal and today's Bangladesh) and Arakan. These areas had around 2,500 Portuguese and their descendents. Campos states that some of these have identified with the natives while others preserved some of their traditions. In addition, the descendents of the settlers had slaves who followed the customs of their masters. Nevertheless, M.N. Pearson in one of his works says that apart from maintaining some link with language and religion there was little else retained. More recent studies suggest a link between Portuguese settlers and Bengali sweets made from "chhana" (sour curd cheese). Bengali sweets such rasogolla and chamcham are made with chhana base. Before the arrival of the Portuguese it seems that none of the Bengali sweets were based on chhana. Apparently, before Portuguese settlements, Bengali sweets such as rasogolla were made by either boiling milk to solid or semi-solid consistency or by adding coconuts and molasses. There is also clear evidence of influence of Portuguese cuisine on Malabar, Malacca and Sri Lanka and on the cuisine of the East Indians. Goans and Keralites prepare a fish preparation with coconut juice in same way. Goans call it fish Caldinho and the Keralites have named it Fish Moilee. There is a close resemblance between Brazilian carne de sol and a beef preparation made in Goa and Kerala. In the last one and half centuries Goans have migrated to different parts of India including Bombay, Calcutta, Pune, Bangalore, Karachi (in today's Pakistan) and abroad they have carried with them their Goan food habits which have European influences. Goan Christians bake at least three varieties of Bebincas: The first one is the queen of upper class Christian dessert on festive occasions. It is prepared with several egg yolks, coconut juice, ghee (a kind of butter), sugar, flour and nutmeg powder. Sometimes caramelized sugar is added to give the bebinca a brownish colour. This bebinca is a layered sweet usually of seven to twelve layers, which is baked layer by layer. The second kind of bebinca is similar to the first one but egg yolks are substituted by egg whites. The latter is prepared with left over egg whites of the former. A third kind of bebinca is the one prepared with sweet potatoes but it is un-layered, baked like a cake and similar to the one prepared in Macau. Luis Felipe Thomaz says that the name bebinca is of Malaysian origin where it is known as bingka or kuch (cake) lapis (layered). Apparently, the Malaysian bingka is not exactly like the Goan one. According to some it does not contain eggs. Eggs are leit-motif of many Portuguese sweets such as toucinho do ceu and ovos moles. Indian sweets do not make use of eggs. Is it possible that recipe for bebinca might have been brought from Portugal? And coconut juice added instead of cow's milk or juice of almonds? Bebinca is also prepared by East Indians and Sri Lankans. FURTHER RESEARCH How many items in Goan gastronomy are really Goan or Indian? There is need to further research on the origin of some of the recipes and food habits in Goa. Cocada (Kocada) a sweet prepared in Goa with coconut and sugar specially at Christmas time is also very popular in S. Salvador de Bahia—Brazil, where vendors sell them on the streets. Where did it originate in Goa or Brazil? We know that merchants and missionaries carried coconut samplings from Goa to Brazil. Again where did the famous Brazilian goiabada known among Goans Christians as perada and among the Hindus as perancho alvo come from? Was this recipe originally from Brazil, India or Portugal? Could this recipe be an adoption of Portuguese marmelada (quince jelly) prepared in similar way with marmelos (quince) instead of goiabas (guavas)? It is still not clear why for instance Goan Christians particularly from Salcete prepare their curry (homun) with thick and thin coconut juices as in Malacca, while Goan Hindus usually grind their coconut fine into a paste and add little juice to homun. Could this be Malaysian food habit brought to Goa by the Portuguese or Goans who had migrated there? Malaysians use coconut juices in many of their food preparations. Could the Dodol have originated in Malaysia? Arroz doce -- a dessert made of rice with milk, sugar and cinnamon, is one of the dessert eaten in Alentejo and other parts of Portugal. It is similar to Indian kheer or paysam and the Brazilian migau. The Brazilian sometimes substitute rice for sagoo as in India. Where the slaves, missionaries or the Goan migrant responsible for carrying the recipe to Portugal and Brazil? Or did the Moors bring the recipe to Portugal and from there it was brought to Goa? Did it come to Portugal from Mediterranean countries such as Greece where it is prepared with milk and eaten in sweet form as a dessert? Is it also possible that the Goan kheer could have come to Goa through the Muslims who ruled Goa or Arab traders? What about banana prepared with sugar syrup, nutmeg and cinnamon? This sweet known as banana halwa is popular among the Hindus of Goa. It is also prepared in Bahia and often served for breakfast or as a dessert. And finally, the famous upper class dessert Sans rival, crepe Suzette as well as savouries made of fish or meat like croquettes as the name suggest are French. Goans prepare also a dessert that resemble crepe Suzette -- it is known as Ale bele made of flour filled with a preparation of grated coconut and jaggery. Could these recipes have come via Monicas who are responsible in bringing some high-class cuisine to Goa? The culinary of Portugal and places touched by Portuguese presence has left an impact on cuisine of not only Goa but also many places where the Portuguese had their settlements or places where the missionaries and traders lived in India. It brought the colonizer and the colonized closer through the food. The impact is still felt in many parts of India. Goan food is very popular and is an interesting fusion of many cultures. Goan food drew on different influences -- Arab, Konkan, Malabar, Portuguese, Brazilian, French, African and even Chinese to name a few. There are many dishes common to Goa, the rest of the Konkan, Malaysia, Macau, Portugal, Brazil and Sri Lanka. Goan food has a global touch. The Portuguese were responsible to a great extent for these influences from Europe, Africa, Americas and some other areas of Asia. As result of Portuguese influence Goan cuisine has gone through a series of adaptations, assimilations and 'Westernization'. Today, with the availability of new ingredients, integration of Goa with the Union of India, out migration of Goans to various regions of the globe as well as inflow of foreign tourists and 'new settlers', new recipes and food habits have been added to Goan cuisine. The history of the evolution of Goan cuisine not only helps us understand the complex processes of assimilation and exclusion, it also serves as an exemplar of Indian multi-culturalism and how various regions of the world has left their mark on this cuisine. ----------------------------------------------------------------- Dr Fatima da Silva Gracias is a Goa-based historian, who completed her studies and PhD in Goa. She lectures at Dhempe College in Panjim, and this article is reproduced with her permission. 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