How the US Government Created the 'Drug Problem' in the USA
http://www.lewrockwell.com/kreca/kreca1.1.1.html
by Michael E. Kreca
January 11, 2010
"The bottom line on this whole business has not yet been written."
-- Dr. Sidney Gottlieb,
CIA Technical Services Staff director for the MK-ULTRA program
--
Eighteenth-century German philosopher Georg Friedrich Hegel long ago
developed, among other things, what he called the principle of
"thesis, antithesis, synthesis" to explain the process of
deliberately enacted social disorder and change as a road to power.
To achieve a desired result, one deliberately creates a situation
("thesis,") devises a "solution," to solve the "problems" created by
that situation ("antithesis,") with the final result being the
ultimate goal of more power and control ("synthesis.") It is
unsurprising Karl Marx and his disciples like Lenin and Trotsky, as
well as the US government in its so-called War On Drugs, made this
process a keystone of their drive for total control of all individual
actions that, in their views, were not, in Mussolini s terms, "inside
the state" and thus controllable by the same.
In September 1942, OSS director and Army Maj. Gen. William "Wild
Bill" Donovan began his search for an effective "truth serum" to be
used on POWs and captured spies. Beginning with a budget of $5,000
and the blessing of President Franklin Roosevelt, he enlisted the aid
of a few prominent physicians and psychiatrists like George
Estabrooks and Harry Murray as well as former Prohibition agent and
notorious Federal Bureau of Narcotics (FBN) director Harry Anslinger.
The OSS/FBN team first tested a potent marijuana extract,
tetrahydrocannabinol acetate (THCA), a colorless, odorless substance,
lacing cigarettes or food items with it, and administering them to
volunteer US Army and OSS personnel, all who eventually acquired the
nickname "Donovan's Dreamers." Testing was also conducted under the
guise of treatment for shell shock.
Donovan's team found that THCA, which they termed "TD," for "truth
drug," induced "a great loquacity and hilarity," and even, in cases
where the subject didn't feel physically threatened, some useable
"reefer madness." Peyote, morphine and scopolamine were judged too
powerful to be used in effective interrogation. In light of all this,
Donovan concluded, "The drug defies all but the most expert and
search analysis, and for all practical purposes can be considered
beyond analysis." The OSS did not, however, end the program. By that
time, faced with the terrifying ship losses the USA was suffering
from German U-boats, Donovan pressed on, hoping to find some
effective chemical means to help interrogate captured U-boat sailors.
In May 1943, George Hunter White, an Army captain, OSS officer and
former FBN agent, gave standard cigarettes laced with THCA to an
unwitting August "Augie Dallas" Del Grazio, an influential New York
City gangster. Del Grazio, who had by then had done prison stretches
for assault and murder, had been one of the Mafia's most notorious
enforcers and narcotics smugglers. He operated an opium alkaloid
factory in Turkey and was a key participant in the long-running
Istanbul/Marseilles/NYC heroin pipeline commonly known as the "French
Connection." Influenced by the THC, Del Grazio (who was also helping
to smuggle spies and Mafiosi into German-occupied Italy) revealed
volumes of vital information about underworld operations, including
the names of several high-ranking city and state officials who took
bribes from the Mob. Donovan was encouraged by the results of White's
tests when he wrote, "Cigarette experiments indicated that we had a
mechanism offering promise in relaxing prisoners to be interrogated."
Unsurprisingly, the extensive wartime German experiments with various
hallucinogenic drugs at the Dachau concentration camp, directed by
one Dr. Hubertus Strughold, later honored as "the father of aviation
medicine," aroused great interest in the USA especially after an
October 1945 Navy technical mission to Dachau reported in detail on
Strughold's work. So great, in fact, that when the OSS and its
successor, the CIA, imported 800 German scientists of various
specialties under the auspices of the infamous "Project Paperclip"
during 194555, it made sure to include Dr. Strughold.
Dr. Strughold's barbaric "medical experiments," for which his
subordinates were tried and convicted as war criminals at Nuremburg,
were nothing more than a series of bizarre and unspeakably brutal
tortures. Even so, he learned a lot about human behavior and
mescaline, a natural alkaloid present in the peyote cactus.
Mescaline, long central to many Native American religious rituals and
first chemically isolated in 1896, is a phenethylamine whose ergoline
skeleton is also contained in lysergic acid (a tryptamine.)
Sandoz Labs chemist Dr. Albert Hofmann also discovered a lysergic
acid derivative called ergonovine, a medication used to retard
excessive postpartum uterine bleeding. Based on his work with
ergonovine, Dr. Hofmann first derived d-lysergic acid diethylamide
tartrate-25 (LSD, a refined alkaloidal liquid byproduct of a rye
fungus, ergot) in a series of experiments in Zurich in 1938. He used
the naturally occurring lysergic acid radical, the common item in all
ergot alkaloids, as the major component of the substance. Further
experiments in this vein yielded psilocybin, derived from the Mexican
Psilocybe cubensis mushroom, hydergine, essential today in the
improvement of cerebral circulation in geriatric patients, and
dihydroergotamine, an important ingredient in blood pressure medication.
The well-read and broadly educated Dr. Hofmann knew ergot had a long
natural and cultural history as both medicine and poison. Ancient
Greek midwives used to give an ergot-based, gruel-like drink, called
kykeon, to their patients about to give birth. Kykeon was also
consumed during the autumn Eleusinia, the ancient Greek agricultural
festival celebrated in honor of the goddess of agriculture, Demeter.
Across the Atlantic, sacramental Maya morning glories, beautifully
depicted at the ancient Mayan temple-palace complex at Teotihuacán,
Mexico, dating to about 1450, also contain ergot-based alkaloids.
However, the mindset the CIA had in its drug research work was far
different from that of Dr. Hofmann's. To our Cold War spymasters,
ex-Nazis like Dr. Strughold were definitely evil, but they were
definitely useful as well. This pervasive amoral pragmatism led, of
course, to the extensive and notorious MK-ULTRA experiments in which,
for nearly 25 years, thousands of everyday Americans, both military
and civilian, were heavily dosed with numerous very potent artificial
psychoactive drugs, often without their knowledge or consent.
This phenomenon of the obsessive "interests of national security"
expediency combined with our celebrity-obsessed pop culture that
gleefully raises and shamelessly promotes snake oil hustlers as well
as the pharmaceutical industry's pricey "pill for every ill"
philosophy, was a form of incompetence and arrogance far more
hazardous than any synthetic alkaloid ever developed and came as no
surprise to those like Dr. Hofmann. LSD, invaluable in psychiatric
treatment actor Cary Grant was cured of alcoholism by carefully
administered doses of the drug under close medical supervision is
thousands of times more potent than the traditional herbal mixtures.
In fact, it is thousands of times more potent than the milder of the
entheogenic alkaloids. It is effective at doses of as little as a
ten-millionth of a gram, which makes it 5,000 times more potent than
mescaline. It should not be taken without training or supervision.
The Navy tested mescaline as part of its 194753 Project CHATTER.
MK-ULTRA was first organized in 1949 by Richard Helms under the
direction of Allen Dulles as Project BLUEBIRD. Two years later, it
was renamed ARTICHOKE (after one of Dulles's favorite foods) then
termed MK-ULTRA in 1953, finally becoming MK-SEARCH in 1965 until the
program's "official termination" eight years later. MK-ULTRA was
directly responsible for the wide underground availability of LSD,
phencyclidine (PCP also called "angel dust"), dimethyltryptamine
(DMT), 2,5-dimethoxy-4-methylamphetamine (STP) and other powerful
synthetic psychoactive drugs in the 1960s. In the early 1950s, the
CIA and the Army had contacted Sandoz requesting several kilograms of
LSD for use in the test program. Dr. Hofmann and Sandoz refused this
request, so Director Dulles persuaded the Indianapolis-based
pharmaceutical luminary Eli Lilly (later the pioneers of and chief
cheerleaders for the widely prescribed antidepressant Prozac) to
synthesize the drug contrary to existing international patent accords
making the US government and Lilly the first illegal domestic
manufacturers and distributors of LSD.
These were distributed via the agency's sometime allies in organized
crime and through the FBI's counterintelligence programs
(COINTELPROs) directed against various activist groups of the period.
The actual definition of the term MK-ULTRA remains unclear but a
former Army Special Forces captain, John McCarthy, who ran the CIA's
Saigon-based Operation Cherry which targeted the Cambodian ruler
Prince Sihanouk for assassination, claimed that MK-ULTRA stood for
"Manufacturing Killers Utilizing Lethal Tradecraft Requiring Assassination."
On April 10, 1953, in a speech at Princeton University, CIA director
Allen Dulles (further feeding the already widespread but misguided
fear about the high effectiveness of the alleged Chinese
"brainwashing" of US POWs in the Korean conflict) warned that the
human mind was a "malleable tool," and that the "brain perversion
techniques" of the Reds were "so subtle and so abhorrent" that "the
brain becomes a phonograph playing a disc put on its spindle by an
outside genius over which it has no control."
Propaganda, in its simplest form, is condemning one's opponent
publicly for doing what one is already doing privately. Dulles, of
course, was that very "outside genius." Three days after warning
assembled Princetonians of the disturbing ramifications of these
techniques, he had directed MK-ULTRA researchers to perfect them. Dr.
Sidney Gottlieb, the CIA's expert on lethal poisons, (who reputedly
was the inspiration for director Stanley Kubrick's bizarre Dr.
Strangelove character played by Peter Sellers in the 1964 film of the
same title) headed up the operation as director of the Chemical
Division of the Technical Services Staff and, via a front
organization called "The Society For Human Ecology," distributed $25
million in drug research grants to Harvard, Stanford, UC Berkeley and
other institutions.
Meanwhile, George Hunter White, of THCA-laced "Lucky Strikes" fame,
had returned to the FBN (now the DEA) at war's end and continued to
research behavior modifying drugs. In 1955, when MK-ULTRA was running
full throttle, he was a high-ranking FBN administrator who helped the
Agency develop and implement a similar operation called Midnight
Climax. In this infamous scheme, "safehouses" staffed with
prostitutes were established in San Francisco. The hookers lured men
from local taverns back to these safehouses after their drinks had
been previously spiked with LSD. White's team secretly filmed the
subsequent events in each house. The purpose of these so-called
"national security brothels" was to enable the CIA to experiment with
the use of sex and mind altering drugs to extract information from
test subjects, and it was planned, from spies, POWs, defectors and saboteurs.
Midnight Climax was terminated after eight years when CIA Inspector
General John Earman charged that "the concepts involved in
manipulating human behavior are found by many people within and
outside the Agency to be distasteful and unethical." He stated that
"the rights and interest of U.S. citizens were placed in jeopardy."
Earman further noted LSD "had been tested on individuals at all
social levels, high and low, native American and foreign." Richard
Helms, MK-ULTRA's bureaucratic godfather, summarily rebuffed Earman's
charges, claiming that "positive operational capacity to use drugs is
diminishing owing to a lack of realistic testing. Tests," Helms
continued, "were necessary to keep up with the Soviets." However,
Helms reversed himself a year later when testifying before the Warren
Commission investigating the JFK assassination, claiming that "Soviet
research has consistently lagged five years behind Western research."
Upon retirement from civil service in 1966, White wrote a startling
farewell letter to Dr. Gottlieb. He reminisced about his Midnight
Climax work. His comments were frightening:
"I was a very minor missionary, actually a heretic, but I toiled
wholeheartedly in the vineyards because it was fun, fun, fun. Where
else could a red-blooded American boy lie, kill, cheat, steal, rape
and pillage with the sanction and blessing of the all-highest?"
Where else indeed, but as a member of what would later become the
hypocritical War on (Some) Drugs?
By the end of the 1950s the CIA was funding just about every
qualified LSD researcher and psychologist it could find, through such
contractors as the Society for the Study of Human Ecology, the Josiah
Macy, Jr. Foundation, and the Geschichter Fund for Medical Research.
Author John Marks, in his 1975 book, The Search for the Manchurian
Candidate, identified the CIA's LSD research pioneers as:
Dr. Robert Hyde at Boston Psychopathic Hospital
Dr. Harold Abramson at Mt. Sinai Hospital and Columbia University in
New York City
Dr. Carl Pfeiffer at the University of Illinois Medical School,
Champaign-Urbana
Dr. Harris Isbell of the NIMH-sponsored Addiction Research Center in
Lexington, Ky.
Dr. Louis Jolyon West at the University of Oklahoma, Stillwater
Dr. Harold Hodge at the University of Rochester (N.Y.)
However, there were prominent critics of the US government's
activities, the earliest among them being Aldous Huxley, the famed
author of the chillingly prescient 1932 novel Brave New World (which
described a totalitarian society whose population was completely
controlled by forcible administration of a government-mandated
"happiness drug" called "soma.") While taking mescaline supplied by
famed English surgeon Dr. Humphrey Osmond (who discovered the close
similarities between the molecular structures of adrenaline and
mescaline), Huxley completed another work entitled The Doors of
Perception in 1954. In that book, the novelist described his
intensely personal vision of the world around him:
"I continued to look at the flowers, and in their living light I
seemed to detect the qualitative equivalent of breathing but of a
breathing without returns to a starting point, with no recurrent ebbs
but only a repeated flow from beauty to heightened beauty, from
deeper to ever deeper meaning. Words like 'grace' and
'transfiguration' came to my mind&Those idiots (MK-ULTRAns) want to
be Pavlovians; Pavlov never saw an animal in its natural state, only
under duress. The 'scientific' LSD boys do the same with their
subjects. No wonder they report psychotics."
Obviously, this isn't a typical CIA spook writing, and, given
Huxley's incredible mind, creative vision and compassion, we're not
talking about a moron or a mental case either. Which means that
giving someone mescaline while they're being tortured or lobotomized
or electrocuted at Dachau will only tell you a lot about torture,
lobotomies and electrocution, not about mescaline.
As author Marks noted:
"It would become supreme irony that the CIA's enormous search for
weapons among drugs fueled by the hope that spies could control
life with genius and machines would wind up helping to create the
wandering, uncontrollable minds of the counterculture."
Admiral's son and musician Jim Morrison led The Doors, [of
Perception] a quartet of Liverpudlians sang of "Lucy In the Sky With
Diamonds," while the Rolling Stones dropped transparent hints about
"Mother's Little Helper." To take a lesson from Orwell, what is more
important about the 1960s, indeed, about any period in history, is
not so much what really happened as how that period is remembered
publicly decades later.
The public memories of that particular era were carefully manipulated
in great part by the deliberate creation and promotion (via
television and the recording industry) of the phony and in reality
quite small "drug/rock/hippie subculture." The first underground LSD
labs were actually set up by the FBI in 1963 in both New York City
and San Francisco. Many began to incorrectly confuse the ancient
medical art of herbalism with the shenanigans of amateur basement
"flower-power" and "biker" chemists. Overenthusiastic pitchmen like
social psychologist Dr. Timothy Leary and Beat poet Allen Ginsberg
sadly failed to sufficiently stress that key difference, although the
technically competent Leary clearly understood the artificially high
potency of LSD.
Leary (and his longtime associate, psychologist Richard Alpert)
matured professionally in a CIA-funded research world. In 1948,
Leary, then a UC Berkeley graduate student, attended the yearly
convention of the left-wing American Veterans' Council in Milwaukee.
There he met CIA officer Cord Meyer. Meyer's professional specialty
was infiltrating and discrediting various organizations deemed
"un-American" or "disloyal." Meyer persuaded Leary to help him. Leary
acknowledged Meyer's influence, crediting him with "helping me
understand my political-cultural role more clearly."
During 195459 Leary was the director of clinical research and
psychology at the Kaiser Foundation Hospital in Oakland, Calif. The
personality test that made him famous, "The Leary," was actually used
by the CIA to test prospective employees. A grad school classmate of
Leary's, CIA contractor Frank Barron, worked with the Berkeley
Institute for Personality Assessment and Research, which was funded
and staffed by CIA psychologists. In 1960 Barron, with government
funding, founded the Harvard Psychedelic Drug Research Center. Leary
followed Barron to Harvard, becoming a lecturer in psychology where
he remained for three years. Leary's Harvard associates included
former chief OSS psychologist Harry Murray, who had monitored the
early OSS "truth serum" experiments, and numerous other knowing CIA
contractors. One of Dr. Murray's many test subjects was a Harvard
undergraduate math major named Theodore Kaczynski.
In the spring of 1963, Leary and Alpert left Harvard and founded the
International Foundation for Internal Freedom (IFIF) later renamed
the Castalia Foundation on a 2,500-acre estate in the small upstate
New York community of Millbrook. There, the pair of psychologists
continued their hallucinogenic drug research and soon became the
chief investigative target of an ambitious Dutchess County district
attorney named G. Gordon Liddy. Multimillionaire William Mellon
Hitchcock generously bankrolled the founding and operation of
IFIF/Castalia and later financed a huge black-market LSD
manufacturing operation.
Even so, Leary carefully stressed proper mindset, setting and dosages
in a book he coauthored with Alpert and Ralph Metzner, The
Psychedelic Experience. It was based on an ancient Tibetan shamanic
manual, The Book of the Dead. The latter work referred to an herbal
tea similar in content to but far less powerful than LSD, and
insisted on mental discipline as an inherent part of the process. The
Incans of Andean South America, for instance, were an invaluable
source of medical knowledge, and used whole herbs like ayahuasca and
the coca leaf, not their artificially refined alkaloids, and
spiritual technique was also taught as a key part of the process.
However, much like the crusading "drys" before and during
Prohibition, the MK-ULTRA inquisitors with their police state
mentality in concert with misinformed and emotionally distressed LSD
users, had found their "devil drug," (the term used by the Harrison
Tax Act advocates in the 1910s and Marijuana Tax Act backers in the
1930s) replete with tragic tales of already emotionally distressed
and lonely young people quite unprepared for such an artificially
powerful entheogen. It was also well within CIA policy to randomly
distribute LSD laced with the lethal poison strychnine so as to
create "horror stories" useful as propaganda. Dr. Hofmann himself
chemically confirmed the presence of pure strychnine in several
random street samples of LSD.
Consistent with its policy of deliberately confusing the beneficial
ancient herbs with extremely dangerous synthetic alkaloid
derivatives, the CIA surreptitiously distributed of these synthetic
compounds, termed "psychedelics," to the public. One of them was STP,
originally developed as an incapacitating agent for the Army in 1964
at Dow Chemical. Dow even made the STP formula public information
three years later. This potent synthetic put many unsuspecting people
on a three-day trip, and sent many, hysterical with anxiety, to the
emergency room. That, of course, was the purpose of its distribution.
During 195575, the Army tested LSD (termed EA-1729) and PCP on
several of its enlisted men at what was then the headquarters of its
Chemical Corps, Edgewood Arsenal in Maryland, something described in
detail by Bill Kurtis in a televised 1995 A&E Investigative Reports
segment titled "Bad Trip to Edgewood." The CIA also tested PCP (in
conjunction with electroshock "therapy" and sleep deprivation) at
Allain Memorial Institute in Montreal under the direction of the
notorious Canadian psychiatrist Dr. Ewen Cameron. The Chemical Corps
(whose commander in the 1950s, Lt. General William Creasy, advocated
a new military strategy of LSD-based "nonkill warfare") then
stockpiled PCP for use as a "nonlethal incapacitant." Excess doses of
PCP, reported the CIA, could "lead to convulsions and death." Soon,
PCP was flooding the streets.
Edgewood also received an average of 400 product "rejects" a month
from major US pharmaceutical firms. These "rejects" were actually
drugs found to be commercially useless because of their demonstrated
hazards and numerous undesirable side effects. In 1958, Edgewood
obtained its first sample of a "reject" called phenylbenzeneacetic
acid (BZ) developed by pharmaceutical giant Hoffmann-LaRoche, later
known by its street nickname as "brown acid."
BZ (some 10,000 times as powerful as LSD) inhibits the production of
hormones which aid the brain's transfer of messages and instructions
across nerve endings (synapses), thereby severely disrupting normal
human perceptual, behavioral and sensory patterns. Its effects
generally last about three days, although symptomsmigraine
headaches, giddiness, disorientation, auditory and visual
hallucinations, and erratic if not maniacal behavior could persist
for as long as six weeks. "During the period of acute effects," noted
an Army physician, "the person is completely out of touch with his
environment." The Army also developed artillery shells and rockets
with warheads able to deliver large dosages of BZ to selected targets.
In the summer of 1964, Beat novelist Ken Kesey (the author of One
Flew Over The Cuckoo's Nest and who had been an MK-ULTRA test subject
at Stanford along with Allen Ginsberg and Grateful Dead musician Bob
Hunter) launched a yearlong cross-country trip in a Day-Glo painted
school bus filled with friends called "Merry Pranksters." The Merry
Pranksters distributed thousands of doses of LSD along the way (a
phenomenon colorfully described in author Tom Wolfe's 1968 book, The
Electric Kool-Aid Acid Test) supplied by one Ronald Hadley Stark.
Stark (who died in 1984) was a CIA operative fluent in five languages
with access to unlimited public funds and numerous high-level
contacts in business and government throughout the world.
For instance, when the underground manufacture and distribution of
LSD was suddenly derailed in 1969 due to the scarcity of its key
ingredient, ergotamine tartrate, and increasing federal law
enforcement pressure, Stark, via the Laguna Beach, Calif.-based
Brotherhood of Eternal Love, a small group of local surfers led by
chemist Nicholas Sand, got it quickly back on track. For five years,
Stark, aided by the Castle Bank of the Bahamas (which pioneered the
art of money laundering for the Mob) and his contacts in a French
pharmaceutical firm, facilitated the mass production and distribution
(via the Brotherhood and other groups) of an even more powerful
strain of LSD nicknamed "orange sunshine." This firm also
manufactured BZ. Stark (who operated LSD labs in Brussels and Paris
as well) claimed he was going to supply orange sunshine as an
offensive weapon to CIA-backed Tibetan rebels fighting the Chinese occupation.
Stark also was a close friend of the Los Angeles founders of a small
breakaway Scientology sect called "The Process Church of the Final
Judgement," English expatriates Robert DeGrimston Moore and Mary Ann McClean.
Regular attendees of the Process Church included members of the Beach
Boys, the Rolling Stones and other prominent pop performers as well
as an ex-convict and wannabe rock musician named Charles Manson.
Manson and his followers became heavy users of orange sunshine the
trademark "bad acid" of the day which they were all on when, on
Manson's orders, they carried out the brutal August 1969
Tate-LaBianca murders. When Stark (who is believed to have
distributed an estimated 50 million doses of LSD during his Agency
career) was arrested for drug trafficking in Bologna in 1975, Italian
magistrate Giorgio Floridia ordered his release on the grounds that
he had been a CIA agent since 1960. Judge Floridia documented and
justified this using a list of Stark's numerous intelligence contacts.
These were and are all classic government COINTELPRO-style tricks
this is how natural herbs and their mild, pharmaceutical-grade
derivatives were quickly and easily made lethal and consequently
demonized. How was this done? First, foolish claims were made that
there was no difference between safe whole herbs and their
potentially deadly ultra-refined alkaloids; next, the best of the
traditional herbs and the milder of the pharmaceutical-grade alkaloid
derivatives were made unavailable, and finally, the streets were
flooded with potentially deadly synthetics. Deliberate perversions of
science like angel dust continue to be a great propaganda tool for
our diehard drug warriors, and the worn catchall excuse of "the
interest of national security" is used to justify appalling covert
drug capers ranging from CIA-sponsored heroin production and
trafficking in Southeast Asia in the 1960s to the
Bush/Clinton/Mena/Nicaragua cocaine-for-arms smuggling schemes in the 1980s.
These Constitution-shredding police state methods were adapted from
the Nazis and the Soviets by and large and were applied by the CIA,
NSA, DEA, BATF, IRS and FBI against us. Scores of groups, ranging
from the American Indian Movement and Black Panthers to militias and
religious organizations like the Branch Davidians in Waco, Texas
(which the government first falsely charged as illegal
methamphetamine dealers in order to get a Posse Comitatus Act waiver
to use military force against them) were either disrupted by agents
provocateur-style riots, bombings and armed standoffs, smeared in the
mainstream news media through the "Reichstag Fire" approach, or, in
the case of the Davidians, physically exterminated. The War on Some
Drugs is merely a horrible extension and intensification of these
tried-and-true Hegelian methods, a "war" in which we all lose.
--
Short Bibliography
Bowart, Walter; Operation Mind Control, Dell Publishing, 1978.
Delgado, Jose, Physical Control of the Mind, Harper, NYC, 1969.
Huxley, Aldous, The Doors of Perception, Harper, NYC, 1954.
Lee, Martin; Shalin, Bruce, Acid Dreams, 1986.
Marchetti, Victor, The CIA and the Cult of Intelligence, New York, 1974.
Marks, John, The Search for the Manchurian Candidate, New York, 1975.
Masters, Robert & Houston, Jean, The Varieties of Psychedelic
Experience: The Classic Guide to the Effects of LSD on the Human Psyche, 2000.
McCoy, Alfred, The Politics of Heroin: CIA Complicity in the Global
Drug Trade, Lawrence Hill, 1972, rev. 1991.
Meerloo, Joost, The Rape of the Mind, Crowell, NYC, 1956.
Skinner, B.F., Beyond Freedom and Dignity," Knopf, NYC, 1971
Smith, Harris R. OSS: The Secret History of America's First Central
Intelligence Agency, Berkeley, 1972.
Stevens, Jay, Storming Heaven LSD and the American Dream, 1998.
.
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