texascavers Digest 15 Jun 2010 03:59:54 -0000 Issue 1082
Topics (messages 15129 through 15137):
Re: Carbon Dioxide and Low Oxygen in Texas Caves.
15129 by: joe-evelynn.satx.rr.com
15130 by: Louise Power
15134 by: Philip L Moss
Re: a cave question (Cave Entrance Tags)
15131 by: JerryAtkin.aol.com
15137 by: Geary Schindel
Chip Clark at the Smithsonian
15132 by: Gill Edigar
Re: Early Registration Extended to June 29th for NSS Convention 2010!
15133 by: Mixon Bill
Re: a cave question
15135 by: Scott Boyd
Re: Chip Clark is dead
15136 by: Bill Stephens
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--- Begin Message ---
I started an airflow study in Robber Baron a year ago which has been continued
by Evelynn in it and other area caves. We monitored CO2 at several minute
sampling intervals over several days. CO2 levels varied widely from a little
over 1000 ppm to over 12000 ppm. The changes in CO2 concentration closely
followed changes in barometric pressure and large CO2 changes could occur in as
little as an hour. Thus a single point measurement, like some of the other ones
mentioned, may not tell you much in a cave with airflow.
Another interesting factor is that after a strong pressure rise, like after
cold front arrives in the winter months, there is a lag, often of a few days,
before the CO2 starts to rise again, even after the pressure has fallen some.
This suggests there is a reservoir or source of CO2 at some point beyond the
known cave that requires some extended period of outflow to draw it out after a
large amount of outside air has been pulled in. In the summer, the CO2 response
is faster since there is a small daily pressure cycle that does not draw in as
much outside air. Overall then, the air seems "worse" in the summer since there
are fewer large pressure increase event to push "good" outside air into the
cave.
In many high CO2 caves that I have been in around San Antonio there are few
significant organics to decompose, so I don't think that is the source. I tend
to go with Jerry's #2 or #3 hypothesis. Around San Antonio, I suspect the water
in the aquifer dissolving carbonates may be the source of the outgassing and
that caves with some connection to it are the ones with the periodically high
CO2 - ie. as the cave blows out it pulls up CO2 from much deeper areas up to
near the surface and then pushes it back down when it blow in.
There are several groups currently doing research in this area and one problem
is the hostile cave environment reeking havoc in instruments left in over the
long term (condensation, corrosion, etc.)
Joe
---- [email protected] wrote:
>
> Elevated CO2 is a common occurrence in Texas caves with the highest levels
> typically being found in caves developed in the Ellenburger or Austin
> Chalk formations. Both of these formations have low permeabilities, and it is
>
> conjectured that this impedes the ability of CO2, once it accumulates, to
> absorb back into the rock/water portion of the formation. That said, even
> caves developed in formations with higher permeability and/or restricted air
> flow may have elevated levels of CO2; usually not in amounts that cause
> physical distress.
>
> As to the cause of high CO2 levels, there are several possibilities:
> 1.) microbial decomposition of organic matter
> 2.) excessive degassing of CO2 from formation water at the water/air
> interface
> 3.) degassing and/or breakdown of carbonates due to hypogene fluids moving
> up from depth (these fluids may be related to hydrocarbons or igneous
> activity)
> 4.) Excessive human respiration in restricted passages
>
>
> Bill Elliott and Butch Fralia conducted oxygen (O2) and carbon dioxide
> (CO2) studies in several Texas caves and found that the amount O2 and CO2 in
> the cave air usually added up to approximately 21% of the total composition
> of the air no matter what the relative proportions of the two gases were.
> Normal air contains 20.9% O2 and 0.04% CO2 by volume. In caves with bad
> air, the CO2 typically displaces the O2 proportionately so that if CO2
> levels
> approach 4%, then O2 levels are usually 17%. It should be noted that this
> relationship does not always apply !
>
>
> To test for CO2, use the BIC lighter test that Butch Fralia published some
> years ago:
> "I've followed the air quality measurement comments of the last few Digests
> with great interest. Over the last nine years I've participated in a
> volunteer cave research project at a Texas State Park. Of the 150+ caves on
> the
> park, the majority have some level of measurable CO2 accumulation ranging
> from detectable to deadly. Over the course of this project, the state has
> furnished air quality instruments for our use. One is an electronic oxygen
> meter and a Draeger device. Using these instruments, we've taken literally
> thousands of air quality measurements.
> "The Draeger instrument was by far the most reliable. The problem with the
> Draeger is the high cost of the tubes, of which one is expended with each
> measurement and not reusable. The Oxygen meter has a probe that must cleaned
> often and replaced about every three months. I don't know if later model
> instruments have this same problem. The oxygen meters are calibrated on the
> surface at 21% oxygen. It's easily knocked out of calibration while moving
> through tight passage areas.
> "Unless a caver is involved in a research project such as the one on the
> state park, the cheapest and most reliable air quality instrument available
> is a BIC lighter. It can be obtained for about $0.97 at any convenience
> store and easily replaced when damaged or depleted. It's within the
> budgetary
> range of anyone who can afford to go caving in the first place. This may
> sound like a cop out to the folks who've offered all the fine advice on air
> quality instruments but......read on gentle caver!
> "When caving in the Arbuckle Mountains, the BIC was the air quality
> instrument of choice though at the time, no one knew how reliable or accurate
> it
> was at the time.
> "During the course of the state park project, we became curious at what
> oxygen levels the lighter would start reacting. Using the instruments we set
> up a number of controlled experiments and verified them with a number of
> repetitions over several years with different brands.
> "The lighter will start reacting at 19.5% oxygen. The flame changes color
> and a small gap will begin to be noticeable between the flame and the jet.
> At 18% oxygen, the flame will burn about 1 inch above the jet. At 17%
> oxygen, the lighter goes out and can not be relit. As mentioned earlier,
> these
> measurements were very repeatable and could be verified by anyone with the
> instruments to do so.
> "In our tests, 99% of the time the oxygen was displaced by an equal amount
> of CO2, such that 17% oxygen = 4% CO2. This was not always the case! In
> two caves, the measurements were typically out of balance where the CO2 was
> 2% higher than indicated by the oxygen level. This was repeated over years
> of data! At the very least, when the lighter no longer burns, STOP!
> "I should mention at this point that the physiological effects of bad air
> result from the CO2 rather than oxygen deprivation! Most cavers, unless
> they are asthmatic, can tolerate 17% [O2] without much difficulty; they will
> breath heavier than normal for the amount of work being performed. At CO2
> levels > 2%, the caver should cave slowly! Especially when climbing! High
> CO2
> will result in a much higher rate of breathing, the skin will be flushed
> to pink, and you feel hotter than you'd expect in a 68 degree cave.
> Hallucination, panic and even passing out are typical reactions, especially
> when
> the CO2 level is greater than 4%. Coming back to the surface, headaches and
> even severe nausea may be experienced. This can be prevented by stopping in
> an area that has between 18% to 19% oxygen for at least 15 minutes before
> moving on to normal air. Those of us who smoke seem to be able to handle
> higher levels of CO2 than non-smokers since we're used to poor air quality
> anyway.
> "If you can afford it and want to play, buy the Draeger for a reliable and
> accurate instrument, otherwise 'Flick you BIC!' (Fralia)"
> _http://thelances.org/hr3/badair.html_
> (http://thelances.org/hr3/badair.html)
> Jerry.
>
> In a message dated 6/13/2010 10:46:32 P.M. Central Standard Time,
> [email protected] writes:
>
> Someone ought to post more on this subject because of the potential for
> Hazardous levels of Carbon Dioxide in many areas of Texas.
> We seem to have been blessed with a lot of karst (Ellenburger primarily)
> prone to generating high levels of CO2 in the warmer months. I can tell you
> that it can certainly present a life threatening scenario where vertical
> caving is concerned.
> I have been in very low air while crawling around and it can be very
> disconcerting but one can generally evacuate to better air or be assisted.
> On
> rope in still air it can most certainly become life threatening very quickly
> when rappelling into a pool of Carbon Dioxide. I became severely
> disoriented and made an emergency egress after fast rappelling 75 feet into
> a cave
> in Cedar Park and hitting the bottom in what was probably life threatening
> levels of CO2. Had I not made it out it would probably have been a body
> recovery and could have involved more than one person if another caver had
> descended to aid me not knowing the nature of the emergency.
> You should be aware that CO2 is a common occurrence in many caves and if
> you are on rope descend with caution should you notice bad air. It doesn’t
> mean it will be life threatening but the change can occur very quickly and
> one needs to be prepared, should the air suddenly become extremely bad, to
> change over and get the hell out post haste.
> I know decomposition of organic debris is the primary cause in most caves.
> Not sure what research has been done on this phenomena or why it seems to
> occur mainly in many Ellenberger caves. Want to say this is an oil
> bearing rock and CO2 may be the result of microbial activity? Any comments
> on
> this from someone in the know.
> Scott
>
>
>
--- End Message ---
--- Begin Message ---
When I worked at Carlsbad Caverns NP in the late 70s, our cave tech Kay Rohde,
checked the CO2 and the radon every day. In the summertime when visitation was
high, CO2 was high (big surprise!). When CO2 was high, radon was high.
Of course we had periodic refreshing of the air in the cave, so it sort of
cleaned itself out as it breathed. It did, however, affect the scheduling of
rangers. Certain areas had higher CO2 and radon than others (back of the Big
Room at the overlook, for instance; entrance through the Queen's Room was
better).
We rotated areas of the cave in which people worked depending on how long
they'd already worked in the high-concentration areas. If I recall (and let's
think about this, it's been 25+ years since I was there), I think we wore chips
which they'd check periodically to make sure that we didn't get an overdose of
radon.
Louise
> Date: Mon, 14 Jun 2010 22:28:08 +0000
> From: [email protected]
> To: [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected];
> [email protected]
> CC: [email protected]
> Subject: Re: [Texascavers] Carbon Dioxide and Low Oxygen in Texas Caves.
>
> I started an airflow study in Robber Baron a year ago which has been
> continued by Evelynn in it and other area caves. We monitored CO2 at several
> minute sampling intervals over several days. CO2 levels varied widely from a
> little over 1000 ppm to over 12000 ppm. The changes in CO2 concentration
> closely followed changes in barometric pressure and large CO2 changes could
> occur in as little as an hour. Thus a single point measurement, like some of
> the other ones mentioned, may not tell you much in a cave with airflow.
>
> Another interesting factor is that after a strong pressure rise, like after
> cold front arrives in the winter months, there is a lag, often of a few days,
> before the CO2 starts to rise again, even after the pressure has fallen some.
> This suggests there is a reservoir or source of CO2 at some point beyond the
> known cave that requires some extended period of outflow to draw it out after
> a large amount of outside air has been pulled in. In the summer, the CO2
> response is faster since there is a small daily pressure cycle that does not
> draw in as much outside air. Overall then, the air seems "worse" in the
> summer since there are fewer large pressure increase event to push "good"
> outside air into the cave.
>
> In many high CO2 caves that I have been in around San Antonio there are few
> significant organics to decompose, so I don't think that is the source. I
> tend to go with Jerry's #2 or #3 hypothesis. Around San Antonio, I suspect
> the water in the aquifer dissolving carbonates may be the source of the
> outgassing and that caves with some connection to it are the ones with the
> periodically high CO2 - ie. as the cave blows out it pulls up CO2 from much
> deeper areas up to near the surface and then pushes it back down when it blow
> in.
>
> There are several groups currently doing research in this area and one
> problem is the hostile cave environment reeking havoc in instruments left in
> over the long term (condensation, corrosion, etc.)
>
> Joe
>
> ---- [email protected] wrote:
> >
> > Elevated CO2 is a common occurrence in Texas caves with the highest levels
> > typically being found in caves developed in the Ellenburger or Austin
> > Chalk formations. Both of these formations have low permeabilities, and it
> > is
> > conjectured that this impedes the ability of CO2, once it accumulates, to
> > absorb back into the rock/water portion of the formation. That said, even
> > caves developed in formations with higher permeability and/or restricted
> > air
> > flow may have elevated levels of CO2; usually not in amounts that cause
> > physical distress.
> >
> > As to the cause of high CO2 levels, there are several possibilities:
> > 1.) microbial decomposition of organic matter
> > 2.) excessive degassing of CO2 from formation water at the water/air
> > interface
> > 3.) degassing and/or breakdown of carbonates due to hypogene fluids moving
> > up from depth (these fluids may be related to hydrocarbons or igneous
> > activity)
> > 4.) Excessive human respiration in restricted passages
> >
> >
> > Bill Elliott and Butch Fralia conducted oxygen (O2) and carbon dioxide
> > (CO2) studies in several Texas caves and found that the amount O2 and CO2
> > in
> > the cave air usually added up to approximately 21% of the total composition
> > of the air no matter what the relative proportions of the two gases were.
> > Normal air contains 20.9% O2 and 0.04% CO2 by volume. In caves with bad
> > air, the CO2 typically displaces the O2 proportionately so that if CO2
> > levels
> > approach 4%, then O2 levels are usually 17%. It should be noted that this
> > relationship does not always apply !
> >
> >
> > To test for CO2, use the BIC lighter test that Butch Fralia published some
> > years ago:
> > "I've followed the air quality measurement comments of the last few Digests
> > with great interest. Over the last nine years I've participated in a
> > volunteer cave research project at a Texas State Park. Of the 150+ caves on
> > the
> > park, the majority have some level of measurable CO2 accumulation ranging
> > from detectable to deadly. Over the course of this project, the state has
> > furnished air quality instruments for our use. One is an electronic oxygen
> > meter and a Draeger device. Using these instruments, we've taken literally
> > thousands of air quality measurements.
> > "The Draeger instrument was by far the most reliable. The problem with the
> > Draeger is the high cost of the tubes, of which one is expended with each
> > measurement and not reusable. The Oxygen meter has a probe that must
> > cleaned
> > often and replaced about every three months. I don't know if later model
> > instruments have this same problem. The oxygen meters are calibrated on the
> > surface at 21% oxygen. It's easily knocked out of calibration while moving
> > through tight passage areas.
> > "Unless a caver is involved in a research project such as the one on the
> > state park, the cheapest and most reliable air quality instrument available
> > is a BIC lighter. It can be obtained for about $0.97 at any convenience
> > store and easily replaced when damaged or depleted. It's within the
> > budgetary
> > range of anyone who can afford to go caving in the first place. This may
> > sound like a cop out to the folks who've offered all the fine advice on air
> > quality instruments but......read on gentle caver!
> > "When caving in the Arbuckle Mountains, the BIC was the air quality
> > instrument of choice though at the time, no one knew how reliable or
> > accurate it
> > was at the time.
> > "During the course of the state park project, we became curious at what
> > oxygen levels the lighter would start reacting. Using the instruments we
> > set
> > up a number of controlled experiments and verified them with a number of
> > repetitions over several years with different brands.
> > "The lighter will start reacting at 19.5% oxygen. The flame changes color
> > and a small gap will begin to be noticeable between the flame and the jet.
> > At 18% oxygen, the flame will burn about 1 inch above the jet. At 17%
> > oxygen, the lighter goes out and can not be relit. As mentioned earlier,
> > these
> > measurements were very repeatable and could be verified by anyone with the
> > instruments to do so.
> > "In our tests, 99% of the time the oxygen was displaced by an equal amount
> > of CO2, such that 17% oxygen = 4% CO2. This was not always the case! In
> > two caves, the measurements were typically out of balance where the CO2 was
> > 2% higher than indicated by the oxygen level. This was repeated over years
> > of data! At the very least, when the lighter no longer burns, STOP!
> > "I should mention at this point that the physiological effects of bad air
> > result from the CO2 rather than oxygen deprivation! Most cavers, unless
> > they are asthmatic, can tolerate 17% [O2] without much difficulty; they
> > will
> > breath heavier than normal for the amount of work being performed. At CO2
> > levels > 2%, the caver should cave slowly! Especially when climbing! High
> > CO2
> > will result in a much higher rate of breathing, the skin will be flushed
> > to pink, and you feel hotter than you'd expect in a 68 degree cave.
> > Hallucination, panic and even passing out are typical reactions, especially
> > when
> > the CO2 level is greater than 4%. Coming back to the surface, headaches and
> > even severe nausea may be experienced. This can be prevented by stopping in
> > an area that has between 18% to 19% oxygen for at least 15 minutes before
> > moving on to normal air. Those of us who smoke seem to be able to handle
> > higher levels of CO2 than non-smokers since we're used to poor air quality
> > anyway.
> > "If you can afford it and want to play, buy the Draeger for a reliable and
> > accurate instrument, otherwise 'Flick you BIC!' (Fralia)"
> > _http://thelances.org/hr3/badair.html_
> > (http://thelances.org/hr3/badair.html)
> > Jerry.
> >
> > In a message dated 6/13/2010 10:46:32 P.M. Central Standard Time,
> > [email protected] writes:
> >
> > Someone ought to post more on this subject because of the potential for
> > Hazardous levels of Carbon Dioxide in many areas of Texas.
> > We seem to have been blessed with a lot of karst (Ellenburger primarily)
> > prone to generating high levels of CO2 in the warmer months. I can tell you
> > that it can certainly present a life threatening scenario where vertical
> > caving is concerned.
> > I have been in very low air while crawling around and it can be very
> > disconcerting but one can generally evacuate to better air or be assisted.
> > On
> > rope in still air it can most certainly become life threatening very
> > quickly
> > when rappelling into a pool of Carbon Dioxide. I became severely
> > disoriented and made an emergency egress after fast rappelling 75 feet into
> > a cave
> > in Cedar Park and hitting the bottom in what was probably life threatening
> > levels of CO2. Had I not made it out it would probably have been a body
> > recovery and could have involved more than one person if another caver had
> > descended to aid me not knowing the nature of the emergency.
> > You should be aware that CO2 is a common occurrence in many caves and if
> > you are on rope descend with caution should you notice bad air. It doesn’t
> > mean it will be life threatening but the change can occur very quickly and
> > one needs to be prepared, should the air suddenly become extremely bad, to
> > change over and get the hell out post haste.
> > I know decomposition of organic debris is the primary cause in most caves.
> > Not sure what research has been done on this phenomena or why it seems to
> > occur mainly in many Ellenberger caves. Want to say this is an oil
> > bearing rock and CO2 may be the result of microbial activity? Any comments
> > on
> > this from someone in the know.
> > Scott
> >
> >
> >
>
>
> ---------------------------------------------------------------------
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>
--- End Message ---
--- Begin Message ---
In my experience, CO2 and radon, or more accurately radon daughters,
concentrate together. Both tend to be higher in caves during the summer
if the caves do not have a significant chimney effect wind. As a rule,
if CO2 is thought to be an issue occasionally in a cave, go in the winter
and the colder outside the better.
Philip L. Moss
[email protected]
********************
On Mon, 14 Jun 2010 16:00:23 -0700 Louise Power writes:
When I worked at Carlsbad Caverns NP in the late 70s, our cave tech Kay
Rohde, checked the CO2 and the radon every day. In the summertime when
visitation was high, CO2 was high (big surprise!). When CO2 was high,
radon was high.
snip
Louise
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--- Begin Message ---
Bev Shade and Peter Sprouse have been the keepers of the PEP cave index.
It's always a good idea to talk to the cavers that have been working an
area for years before boldly going where many others have been before.
Jerry.
In a message dated 6/14/2010 11:18:28 A.M. Central Standard Time,
[email protected] writes:
And another thing about tags....
Traipsing about the woods around Conrad Castillo - my little group came
across a cave at the base of a cliff. It looked like a good one. You could
see it drop off to the left and there were stals on the ceiling. It had a
tag, so its assumed its already been all accounted for. We're looking for
"new caves" after all.
However - who's holding the index? All we had was a little number and
there was no information about these tags at the field house. Best we could
do was to write down the number and perhaps get Peter Sprouse to look it
up for us when we got back to Austin....
A system. Indeed. Not a real good solution in that time and place. Of
course these days, the entire index and all the maps could be put on
someone's iPhone.
I digress...
-WaV
--- End Message ---
--- Begin Message ---
Then again, it's hard not to duplicate work if the previous work is all secret
or the cavers won't talk to you. I've seen this numerous times where some
caver gets offended because someone else has contacted the owner or
rediscovered their cave. It seems to be the universal caving constant and has
occurred in every state I've worked in. LOL.
Geary
From: [email protected] [mailto:[email protected]]
Sent: Monday, June 14, 2010 6:45 PM
To: [email protected]; [email protected]
Cc: [email protected]
Subject: Re: [Texascavers] Re: a cave question (Cave Entrance Tags)
Bev Shade and Peter Sprouse have been the keepers of the PEP cave index. It's
always a good idea to talk to the cavers that have been working an area for
years before boldly going where many others have been before.
Jerry.
In a message dated 6/14/2010 11:18:28 A.M. Central Standard Time,
[email protected] writes:
And another thing about tags....
Traipsing about the woods around Conrad Castillo - my little group came across
a cave at the base of a cliff. It looked like a good one. You could see it
drop off to the left and there were stals on the ceiling. It had a tag, so
its assumed its already been all accounted for. We're looking for "new caves"
after all.
However - who's holding the index? All we had was a little number and there
was no information about these tags at the field house. Best we could do was
to write down the number and perhaps get Peter Sprouse to look it up for us
when we got back to Austin....
A system. Indeed. Not a real good solution in that time and place. Of
course these days, the entire index and all the maps could be put on someone's
iPhone.
I digress...
-WaV
--- End Message ---
--- Begin Message ---
Chip was a photographer at the Smithsonian. Here is a web site featuring
Chip and his work. I will try to post a link later this week (it is being
added to now) of a lot of his cave photos and associated cavers.
http://www.mnh.si.edu/onehundredyears/profiles/Chip_Clark.html
--Ediger
--- End Message ---
--- Begin Message ---
This was due to expire tomorrow. Forwarded by Mixon:
Begin forwarded message:
From: "2010 NSS Convention" <[email protected]>
List-Post: [email protected]
Date: June 14, 2010 11:48:26 AM CDT
To: [email protected]
Subject: Early Registration Extended to June 29th for NSS Convention
2010!
Reply-To: "2010 NSS Convention" <[email protected]
>
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Howdy,
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everyone, the 2010 NSS Convention crew has opted to extend the
pre-registration discount period by 2 weeks until June 29th. This is
going to be a great Convention -- we have so much planned we wanted to
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--- Begin Message ---
Yes, we still place aluminum round tags at cave entrances. (My experience with
cave tags is from CBSP.) There are some that have an aluminum strip, similar in
thickness to a beer/soda can , that is a temporary marker because you can
quickly write on it with a ball-point pen on location. It can be replaced later
with a round tag that has been stamped with the cave ID number. At CBSP, these
IDs are either SABxxx or LAMxxx depending on which county the cave is in. For
karst features, the ID is Kxxx, IIRC. The tags are usually nailed to the
nearest tree, which at CBSP is most often a cedar tree. These ID numbers, GPS
coordinates, and other info about the caves are kept in a database at TSS. For
CBSP, I know that at least Crash Kennedy and Butch Fralia have copies of the
database. In fact, Butch is the maintainer of the CBSP database, (maybe others
too.)
A few years ago when the Maverick Grotto had a project going at a private ranch
in San Saba County, we tagged the caves with a round metal tag.
If you are looking for a specific cave at CBSP, and you know the ID number, and
you have GPS coordinates that may or may not be accurate, once you come upon
the cave entrance, look for the tag, and that will usually veriify whether you
have found the right cave or not. Also - if you're out ridge-walking and you
come upon a small cave with a tag, then you know for sure it's already been
discovered previously. If it doesn't have a tag, well... maybe it has been
discovered - maybe it hasn't...
Scott
--- On Sun, 6/13/10, David <[email protected]> wrote:
From: David <[email protected]>
Subject: [Texascavers] a cave question
To: "Cavers Texas" <[email protected]>
List-Post: [email protected]
Date: Sunday, June 13, 2010, 11:07 PM
I have a question, or questions.
Do cavers still place numerical metal tags at caves?
Do any caves still have the old metal tags around them ?
My memory seems to recall seeing a round tag a little
bigger than a quarter with a number on it at a cave I
once went to.
I can't remember if I saw that at CBSP or somewhere
else where cavers were marking caves. Maybe out
at Bandera ?
If my memory is correct, was this a grotto thing, or a
TSS thing, or some other group?
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Chip Clark was a tremendous photographer. I have one of his photos hanging in
my office at work.
Bill
________________________________
From: Gill Edigar <[email protected]>
To: Cavers Texas <[email protected]>
Sent: Mon, June 14, 2010 12:00:09 PM
Subject: [Texascavers] Chip Clark is dead
>>>>----------fwd from SIVTAC via PSC------------>
Fred Grady sent a message saying that long-time PSC member Chip Clark died in
his sleep Saturday night and he asked me to send a notice to this list. He has
no other information.
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Several of you Texas cavers have had the pleasure of knowing Chip Clark from
Virginia. He was a master cave photographer early in his career. He worked as a
staff photographer for the Smithsonian. He was the only person allowed to take
photos of the devistation of the David Koresh fiasco near Waco. We are better
people for having Chip pass through our lives.
--Ediger
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