Asbestos is the name given to six minerals that occur naturally in the environment as bundles of fibers that can be separated into thin, durable threads for use in commercial and industrial applications. These fibers are resistant to heat, fire, and chemicals and do not conduct electricity. For these reasons, asbestos has been used widely in many industries. Additional asbestos-like minerals are found in the natural environment, including erionite.
Chemically, asbestos minerals are silicate compounds, meaning they contain atoms of silicon and oxygen in their molecular structure. Asbestos minerals are divided into two major groups: Serpentine asbestos and amphibole asbestos. Serpentine asbestos includes the mineral chrysotile, which has long, curly fibers that can be woven. Chrysotile asbestos is the form that has been used most widely in commercial applications. Amphibole asbestos includes the minerals actinolite, tremolite, anthophyllite, crocidolite, and amosite. Amphibole asbestos has straight, needle-like fibers that are more brittle than those of serpentine asbestos and are more limited in their ability to be fabricated. Asbestos has been mined and used commercially in North America since the late 1800s. Its use increased greatly during World War II. Since then, asbestos has been used in many industries. For example, the building and construction industries have used it for strengthening cement and plastics as well as for insulation, roofing, fireproofing, and sound absorption. The shipbuilding industry has used asbestos to insulate boilers, steam pipes, and hot water pipes. The automotive industry uses asbestos in vehicle brake shoes and clutch pads. Asbestos has also been used in ceiling and floor tiles; paints, coatings, and adhesives; and plastics. In addition, asbestos has been found in vermiculite-containing garden products and some talc-containing crayons. In the late 1970s, the U.S. Consumer Product Safety Commission (CPSC) banned the use of asbestos in wallboard patching compounds and gas fireplaces because the asbestos fibers in these products could be released into the environment during use. In addition, manufacturers of electric hairdryers voluntarily stopped using asbestos in their products in 1979. In 1989, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) banned all new uses of asbestos; however, uses developed before 1989 are still allowed. The EPA also established regulations that require school systems to inspect buildings for the presence of damaged asbestos and to eliminate or reduce asbestos exposure to occupants by removing the asbestos or encasing it. In June 2000, the CPSC concluded <https://www.cpsc.gov/content/cpsc-releases-test-results-on-crayons-industry-to-reformulate> that the risk of children’s exposure to asbestos fibers in crayons was extremely low. U.S. manufacturers of these crayons agreed to eliminate talc from their products. In August 2000, the EPA conducted a series of tests to evaluate the risk for consumers of adverse health effects associated with exposure to asbestos-contaminated vermiculite. The EPA concluded that exposure to asbestos from some vermiculite products poses only a minimal health risk. The EPA recommended that consumers reduce the low risk associated with the occasional use of vermiculite during gardening activities by limiting the amount of dust produced during *vermiculite use. *Specifically, the EPA suggested that consumers use vermiculite outdoors or in a well-ventilated area; keep vermiculite damp while using it; avoid bringing dust from vermiculite into the home on clothing; and use premixed potting soil, which is less likely to *generate dus*t. The regulations described above and other actions, coupled with widespread public concern about the health hazards of asbestos, have resulted in a significant annual decline in the U.S. use of asbestos. Domestic consumption of asbestos amounted to about 803,000 metric tons in 1973, but it had dropped to about 360 metric tons by 2015. *health hazards of exposure to asbestos?* People may be exposed to asbestos in their workplace, their communities, or their homes. If products containing asbestos are disturbed, tiny asbestos fibers are released into the air. When asbestos fibers are breathed in, they may get trapped in the lungs and remain there for a long time. Over time, these fibers can accumulate and cause scarring and inflammation <https://www.cancer.gov/Common/PopUps/popDefinition.aspx?id=CDR0000044042&version=Patient&language=English>, which can affect breathing and lead to serious health problems Asbestos has been classified as a known human carcinogen (a substance that causes cancer) by the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (HHS), the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), and the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC). According to IARC, there is sufficient evidence that asbestos causes mesothelioma <https://www.cancer.gov/Common/PopUps/popDefinition.aspx?id=CDR0000044323&version=Patient&language=English> (a relatively rare cancer of the thin membranes that line the chest and abdomen), and cancers of the lung, larynx, and ovary. In fact, it is thought that most mesotheliomas are due to asbestos exposure. There is limited evidence that asbestos exposure is linked to increased risks of cancers of the stomach, pharynx, and colorectum. Asbestos exposure may also increase the risk of asbestosis (an inflammatory condition affecting the lungs that can cause shortness of breath, coughing, and permanent lung damage) and other non-malignant lung and pleural disorders, including pleural plaques (changes in the membranes surrounding the lung), pleural thickening, and benign pleural effusions (abnormal collections of fluid between the thin layers of tissue lining the lungs and the wall of the chest cavity). Although pleural plaques are not precursors to lung cancer, evidence suggests that people with pleural disease caused by exposure to asbestos may be at increased risk for lung cancer. Erionite has also been classified as a known human carcinogen by IARC and by HHS. It is not currently regulated <https://iaspub.epa.gov/sor_internet/registry/substreg/searchandretrieve/advancedsearch/externalSearch.do?p_type=CASNO&p_value=12510-42-8> by the EPA. Everyone is exposed to asbestos at some time during their life. Low levels of asbestos are present in the air, water, and soil. However, most people do not become ill from their exposure. People who become ill from asbestos are usually those who are exposed to it on a regular basis, most often in a job where they work directly with the material or through substantial environmental contact. Since the early 1940s, millions of American workers have been exposed to asbestos. Health hazards from asbestos fibers have been recognized in workers exposed in the shipbuilding trades, asbestos mining and milling, manufacturing of asbestos textiles and other asbestos products, insulation work in the construction and building trades, and a variety of other trades. Demolition workers, drywall removers, asbestos removal workers, firefighters, and automobile workers also may be exposed to asbestos fibers. Studies evaluating the cancer risk experienced by automobile mechanics exposed to asbestos through brake repair are limited, but the overall evidence suggests there is no safe level of asbestos exposure. As a result of government regulations and improved work practices, today’s workers (those without previous exposure) are likely to face smaller risks than did those exposed in the past. Individuals involved in the rescue, recovery, and cleanup at the site of the September 11, 2001, attacks on the World Trade Center (WTC) in New York City are another group at risk of developing an asbestos-related disease. Because asbestos was used in the construction of the North Tower of the WTC, when the building was attacked, hundreds of tons of asbestos were released into the atmosphere. Those at greatest risk include firefighters, police officers, paramedics, construction workers, and volunteers who worked in the rubble at Ground Zero. Others at risk include residents in close proximity to the WTC towers and those who attended schools nearby. These individuals will need to be followed to determine the long-term health consequences of their exposure. However, it is important to note that any symptoms these individuals experience may be related to exposure to debris components other than asbestos. Although it is clear that the health risks from asbestos exposure increase with heavier exposure and longer exposure time, investigators have found asbestos-related diseases in individuals with only brief exposures. Generally, those who develop asbestos-related diseases show no signs of illness for a long time after exposure. It can take from 10 to 40 years or more for symptoms of an asbestos-related condition to appear. There is some evidence that family members of workers heavily exposed to asbestos face an increased risk of developing mesothelioma. This risk is thought to result from exposure to asbestos fibers brought into the home on the shoes, clothing, skin, and hair of workers. To decrease these exposures, Federal law regulates workplace practices to limit the possibility of asbestos being brought home in this way. Some employees may be required to shower and change their clothes before they leave work, store their street clothes in a separate area of the workplace, or wash their work clothes at home separately from other clothes. Cases of mesothelioma have also been seen in individuals without occupational asbestos exposure who live close to asbestos mines. Several factors can help to determine how asbestos exposure affects an individual, including: · Dose (how much asbestos an individual was exposed to) · Duration (how long an individual was exposed) · Size, shape, and chemical makeup of the asbestos fibers · Source of the exposure · Individual risk factors <https://www.cancer.gov/Common/PopUps/popDefinition.aspx?id=CDR0000045873&version=Patient&language=English>, such as smoking and pre-existing lung disease · Genetic factors, such as having a germline mutation <https://www.cancer.gov/Common/PopUps/popDefinition.aspx?id=CDR0000046384&version=Patient&language=English> in *BAP1* Although all forms of asbestos are considered hazardous, different types of asbestos fibers may be associated with different health risks. For example, the results of several studies suggest that amphibole forms of asbestos may be more harmful than chrysotile, particularly for mesothelioma risk, because they tend to stay in the lungs for a longer period of time. Modern asbestos sheets are modified, curated, colourful sheets. KR IRS 241123 ---------- Forwarded message --------- From: venkat raman <[email protected]> Date: Fri, 24 Nov 2023 at 07:15 Subject: Re: [KeralaIyers] ASBESTOS To: <[email protected]> Cc: Patty Thatha <[email protected]>, Iyer < [email protected]> Namasthe. The sheets are known as AC sheets. Asbestos is mined. I remember it being brought from Montreal, Canada. While I was in service, in 1980 we imported it. Its dust is harmful. AC sheet is asbestos cement sheet. I think it was used for lagging the steam pipes so that the heat was not lost.Earlier the the cinemas in small towns in Kerala were cadjan sheds. Even the greasy spoons in villages were cadjan sheds. The AC sheets are corrugated and do not need a high pitch like that of the thatched ones. The water gets easily drained from the roofs made of AC sheets. Venkataraman On Thu, 23 Nov 2023 at 19:52, 'gopala krishnan' via KeralaIyers < [email protected]> wrote: > ASBESTOS > > Dear friends, > > When I was about fifteen years old, use of asbestos for roofing started in > my native in Kerala. The asbestos sheets were large in size, do not > require more slanting as for tile roofing, required less supporting wooden > frame. Most homes started to have an extension hall in the front with > asbestos. > > Many homes removed backside room called chayippu, extended and > reconstructed with asbestos roof. They could be used like rooms. > > Cinema theatres which were having thatched coconut leaf roofing were > directed to remove it and roof with asbestos sheet to avoid firerisk. > > The college I studied in my native was having two floors, roofing was with > asbestos sheet (1961-1964) except Principal room in the front, which had > RCC roofing with tower clock installed above it. > > Asbestos sheets were fire resistant. In telephone exchanges cabins were > directed to be replaced with asbestos in metal frames. It marred the > appearance, but fire risk was more important. “Number please” manual > exchanges were more prone to fire risk… > > However asbestos sheets were fragile, though having more thickness. > > Till tin sheets appeared, asbestos sheets were more prominent. When I > constructed my home in Chennai in 2005, overhead water tank was covered > with thick asbestos sheets were provided in aluminium frame. After tree > branches falling from nearby compound and breaking, mica sheets are fitted > in aluminium frame are provided now. > > I understand that Kerala has banned further use of asbestos now. But > Tamilnadu has not banned. > > Today in Yahoo opening page I found an interesting article about asbestos > sheets. I thought of FORWARDING it to my friends. This posting is 21 > pages, please read at leisure time. > > Gopalakrishnan 23-11-2023. > > ARTICLE > > Asbestos was a miracle material, virtually impervious to fire. But as we > fixed city fires in other ways, we came to learn about its horrific > downsides. > > Few materials fell from grace like asbestos. Once cherished as an > almost-magical material, it is now the archetypal carcinogen. We spent > over a century integrating it into buildings, wiring, pipes, brake pads, > and more, and we now spend billions of dollars a year removing it. > > But the standard story of asbestos as a mistake – or even a crime – of > massive proportions does not do justice to the real benefits it brought. > Asbestos > was central to mitigating urban fires, which cost thousands of lives each > year as modern cities grew larger, denser, and more flammable. But as we > learned to control urban fires without it, asbestos’s health costs seemed > less and less worth bearing. Asbestos is in its final days and soon the > material will almost disappear entirely. > > Miracle materials are not all manmade. Asbestos is a family of six > naturally occurring silicates, made from the same elemental blocks as sand > or glass, organized in delicate fibrous strands that tease apart like > cotton candy and compare with steel in tensile strength. Chrysotile or > white asbestos, the commercially dominant form, is a serpentine silicate, > with fibrous strands that crumble to the touch; the remaining five are > amphiboles (including crocidolite, blue asbestos), spiky forests of short > and fragile needles. In all its forms, asbestos has remarkable > properties: it’s light, waterproof, and, most famously, fireproof. > > The unique structure of asbestos requires a unique set of circumstances to > form. The fibers of asbestos are crystals precipitated out of a solution > of minerals in hot water under pressure. This is hydrothermal synthesis, a > process used to grow artificial crystals in laboratory settings (or candy > from syrup). The low-silica rocks in which asbestos originates are found > naturally across the planet, and asbestos has been found and mined on every > inhabited continent. > > The first written record of asbestos was by Theophrastus, who categorized > it correctly by including it in his mineralogical work, On Stones. He did > better than most, considering that an animal origin for asbestos was a > common misconception in the ancient world: asbestos was credited to > everything from phoenix feathers to the mythical salamander to Princess > Bride–style literal volcano-dwelling fire rats. > > Its rarity and invulnerability to fire gave asbestos an air of mystique > and an association with power. Charlemagne is said to have had a > tablecloth of pure asbestos that he would throw into the fire as a party > trick, and Emperor Ashoka of India sent a gift of asbestos cloth to Sri > Lanka. Earnest pilgrims into the Holy Land were sold pieces of asbestos > cloth as remnants of the Holy Shroud, made credible by their immunity to > fire. Benjamin Franklin paid for his time in Europe by selling an > asbestos purse to a collector (for which he was paid ‘handsomely’). Yet > asbestos existed only as an interesting novelty without a clear use. > > That use case came into being in the late nineteenth century. The > fast-growing cities of the time were exceptionally flammable, with > densely clustered buildings full of wood, fabric, and open flames. > Electrification was new; fire codes were yet to become ubiquitous (or > stringently applied). In some cases, even roads were made of timber. > > Unsurprisingly, ‘Great Fires’ struck virtually every major city. Theaters, > full of flammable set elements and a tightly packed audience, were a > frequent source of fire. The risky productions themselves did not help – > 31 of the 1,108 theater fires documented worldwide between 1797 and 1897 > were started by fireworks on the stage. > > Theater fires started mostly on the stage and then spread to the audience. > It was critical that the two areas be separated to protect the audience. > Theater owners attempted to separate the stage and audience with heavy > curtains of sheet metal, called ‘iron curtains’. Experiments on a scale > model following a fire in Vienna’s Ringtheatre in 1881 showed their > limitations. A fire on the stage would blow the hot metal curtain out onto > the audience it was meant to protect, not only endangering them but also > extinguishing the gaslights meant to light the way to safety. In other > instances, the curtain could collapse onto the stage or fail to descend at > all. > > Engineers and regulators experimented with a diversity of materials for > safety curtains, settling on asbestos. > > The 1903 fire at the Iroquois Theatre in Chicago led to an exemplary > institutional response. The Iroquois supposedly had an asbestos curtain > that failed to come down during the fire, but later investigation of the > remnants of the curtain revealed that the curtain was mostly vegetable > fiber. Following the fire, Chicago ordered all its theaters to be closed > down immediately, while in New York inspectors went around setting fire to > theater curtains, in search of dupes being passed off as asbestos by > noncompliant ownership. The message now was clear: asbestos, or nothing. > > Theaters were not the only place where fires were common. Movie theaters, > schools, hotels, hospitals, ships, and ports all existed under the threat > of fire. Asbestos was gradually introduced in each. > > Ports were particularly keen on fire safety. > > A fire port-side could easily spread among ships and destroy them, as it > did famously in the 1900 Hoboken Docks fire in New Jersey. A fire that > started in bales of cotton stored on a pier spread with the wind to stores > of flammable turpentine and oil, which exploded in quick succession. > > Within 45 minutes, the fire had destroyed three piers and three major > transatlantic liners belonging to the Norddeutscher Lloyd shipping company, > and claimed over 200 lives. Navies and merchant navies were eager and > early adopters of asbestos. When Norddeutscher Lloyd finally rebuilt the > pier, asbestos felt was among the materials used. > > The first mass-produced asbestos products in the United States were gas > fireplaces, eventually joined by protective suits for firefighters and > materials for roofing, felting, and boiler insulation. Asbestos became > the standard material for applications as diverse as brake pad linings and > insulation for electrical wiring. In the case of brake pad linings, > asbestos was the only reliable material until well into the 1940s, and > remains one of the few permitted uses in the United States today. Scientific > American wrote in 1919 that ‘new uses of this material are being found > almost daily’. > > Production kept pace: prices fell from $128 per ton to $30 per ton in the > United States from 1890–1904 following the discovery of commercially viable > deposits in Canada and improved methods of refinement and transport. It > was rapidly becoming price competitive in construction in the form of > roofing tiles and in products where it could be blended with cheaper > material, as in asbestos stucco and asbestos-cement shingles. One > particularly clever product was asbestos paint, which made wooden > structures flame-retardant. Patented in 1878, it was already on federal > buildings, including the US Capitol, by 1879. > > My note- Asbestos paint is a new information to me. > > Asbestos became more important than ever in World War II. It was > classified as a critical material by the US War Production Board, and its > scope expanded from its traditional roles of fireproofing, friction > reduction, and insulation to substituting other materials that were even > more desperately needed elsewhere. It became the material of choice for > aircraft hangars and ordnance stores, military prefabs, ductwork, and even > common gutters and downspouts. Soon, conservation orders were issued > limiting its use and privileging defense applications. > > The Navy was at the forefront of asbestos use. Shipboard fires engulfed > vessels that had limited means of fire suppression. Newer classes of ships > such as the Essex featured asbestos curtains and fire doors, and no ships > were lost to fire after 1942. In later years, as many as a third of all > asbestos-related cancer cases in the US would be linked to US Navy ships or > shipyards. > > The postwar era combined a heightened awareness of the risk of fire with a > massive wave of new construction. Asbestos was cheap enough to use in every > building. America produced and imported asbestos at a fantastic rate. > Asbestos consumption tripled between 1940 and 1950, increasing from 240,000 > metric tons to 400,000 metric tons from 1940–1941 alone. At one point, as > many as 4,000 products contained asbestos, including toothpaste. Things > would soon change. > > As early as 1898, factory inspectors noted the effects of asbestos on > workers who breathed in its fibers, with one going so far as to call it ‘the > evil dust’ (safety reports were a lot more colorful then). A 1918 report > to the US Bureau of Labor Statistics, ‘Mortality from Respiratory Diseases > in Dusty Trades’, explained that ‘in the practice of American and > Canadian life insurance companies asbestos workers are generally declined > on account of the assumed health-injurious conditions of the industry’. > > In 1924, Nellie Kershaw, a 33-year-old British asbestos spinner, died. The > inquest concluded that the cause of her death was suffocation traced to > profound scarring of her lung tissue from being lacerated with microscopic > asbestos fibers. The coroner who led the inquest called it ‘asbestos > poisoning’. Her employer, the largest asbestos factory in the world and > the owner of asbestos mines in Canada and South Africa, rejected the report. > > Nellie Kershaw’s death was not entirely without consequence. The coroner > pressed on, publishing his results in The British Medical Journal. Kershaw’s > illness now had a name – asbestosis – and a British government survey of > the asbestos industry in 1930 found that a quarter of all workers were > suffering from it. > > The next year, Britain passed Asbestos Industry Regulations, 1931, the > world’s first regulation dealing specifically with asbestos. > > That did not immediately put a stop to asbestos, even in the United > Kingdom. The event that finally did set off a wave of asbestos bans > across advanced economies came over 30 years later, at a conference > convened at the New York Academy of Sciences in 1964. > > This conference was organized by Irving J. Selikoff of New York’s Mount > Sinai Hospital. Selikoff had spent years interviewing workers involved > with asbestos, among them asbestos weavers, pipe insulators, and shipyard > workers. He later published results in 1965 and 1968 that suggested > asbestos might be a carcinogen, but at the 1964 conference, he may have > had his greatest impact by catalyzing the conversation in the first place. > The conference itself was largely a consolidation of already available > knowledge and presented little that was new or surprising, but the momentum > it generated made a definite difference, and in the case of Selikoff, > enemies. > > Asbestos use collapsed in the wealthy world almost as dramatically as it > had risen. The bans took off, slowly, in the early seventies. Denmark was > first, banning asbestos for insulation and waterproofing in 1972. Sweden > followed with a ban on asbestos spraying in 1973. The first total ban > came in 1980, with Denmark again leading the charge. Each successive > decade saw more jurisdictions join in restricting the use of asbestos, > partially or fully, for the first time: eight more in the 1980s, 24 in the > 1990s, and 36 in the 2000s. The bans were augmented with requirements to > remove asbestos where found in existing buildings. As the threat of fire > dwindled, Asbestos prohibitions spread. > > Asbestos is now banned in at least 66 countries, including all members of > the European Union, the United Kingdom, Japan, Australia, and South Africa. > > The United States is often cited as a rare industrialized country > without a total ban, but it was no laggard in pursuing restrictions, > either. The first American restriction came in 1973, followed in quick > succession by further restrictions in 1975, 1977, and 1978. An effort by > the Environmental Protection Agency to ban asbestos completely in 1989 was > the closest the United States came to a complete ban on asbestos. In > 1991, a Federal appeals court overturned provisions of the ban that would > have come into force in 1993 and 1996, effectively protecting asbestos > use in brake drum linings, roofing and flooring felt, and asbestos tiles. > Despite this, the popularity of asbestos in the United States continued to > fall. > > The move against asbestos in the United States was globally consequential. > The United States had traditionally imported nearly all of its asbestos and > was the largest asbestos importer in the world. In 1970, the United States > had imported close to 590,000 metric tons of asbestos; in 2000, this had > collapsed to below 15,000 metric tons. Global trade in asbestos fell from > 2.4 million to 1 million metric tons between 1970 and 2000, and the United > States was responsible for 40 percent of this decline in volume. > > Substitutes have been found for most applications. The majority of > substitutes are natural or synthetic fibers that are not considered > carcinogenic. Asbestos has been replaced in fiber-reinforced cement by > cellulose fibers, in insulation by fiberglass and mineral wool, and in > clothing by aramid fibers. > > Elsewhere, its unique confluence of useful properties has proved harder to > replicate. Asbestos cement, which was used to make cheap, durable pipes and > prefabricated sheets for wall cladding, was by far the biggest use of > asbestos, accounting for 80 percent of asbestos production in 1988. A > particularly interesting niche where asbestos persists is in the production > of chlorine. Asbestos diaphragms are used in the chlor-alkali process, > the dominant technology for manufacturing chlorine, to separate the anode > and cathode of an electrolytic cell. An alternative method uses polymer > membranes instead. These methods have traditionally been considered ‘low > concern’ from a health and safety standpoint; some researchers now suggest > that we should be more concerned, but switching to the alternative method > is expensive. > > The economic case for asbestos slowed its decline in many places. > Canada’s exit was particularly protracted, given its former status as a > leading producer. The costs of damages and litigation, over $70 billion in > the United States alone, have resulted in widespread bankruptcies of > asbestos manufacturers and closures of asbestos mines. The last asbestos > mine in Canada, which was also the world’s largest, discontinued operations > in 2011. While Canada ceased mining, a ban on export did not come into > force until the penultimate day of 2018. The town of Asbestos, Quebec, home > to that final mine, abandoned its name in 2020. > > The costs of abatement have been just as significant. That asbestos is > implicated in asbestosis (limited mostly to workers with direct exposure, > such as Nellie Kershaw) and mesothelioma (cancer of the mesothelium, which > forms a lining around the lungs) is universally accepted. What’s > controversial is the benefit from removing asbestos from all structures, > given the risk to building occupants tends to be low. It is instead > people who work directly with high concentrations of asbestos – such as > shipyard and textile workers – who are at high risk. > > The Environmental Protection Agency estimates there are over 700,000 > public and commercial buildings in the US that contain asbestos, as well > as 45 percent of the nation’s 100,000 schools. The number of residential > buildings that contain asbestos is simply not known. Rachel Maines, the > author of Asbestos and Fire, figures essentially every building constructed > in the twentieth century prior to 1980 contains it. The requirement to > remove asbestos in the built environment wherever found, so-called > “in-place” asbestos, has given rise to an abatement industry in the United > States with annual revenues already exceeding three billion dollars. These > are expensive projects, where a consultant must be retained, workers must > wear protective gear, and the worksite must be isolated with negative > pressure. > > The cost of such abatement at a national scale would likely run into > hundreds of billions of dollars, for uncertain benefits. Asbestos is > dangerous only when inhaled, and it cannot be inhaled except as airborne > fibers that are released when asbestos is disturbed. Since abatement > takes the form of ripping or scraping off asbestos from the places where it > is found, it generates clouds of airborne fibers where there were none, and > needs to be disposed of very carefully by abatement workers. > > While the health consequences of removing asbestos are not yet fully > understood, there are not currently reasons to be concerned. And natural > sources of asbestos can confound data. For example, a large study using > data across California found that the odds of developing mesothelioma > declined by 6.3 percent for each ten kilometers of distance from the > nearest source of environmental asbestos. If members of the ‘control group’ > in a study, who are assumed to have no exposure to asbestos, actually had > natural exposure to asbestos, researchers would underestimate the harms > they face and the risks of further exposure to asbestos in occupational > work. > > How many lives did asbestos itself save in the final reckoning, net of the > deaths it caused? It’s impossible to say. This is what we know: Fire > deaths fell by over 90 percent in the United States over the twentieth > century; asbestos was present in thousands of applications as a fire > retardant; and without effective brake pads, the roads would have been > much more dangerous. However, at the same time that asbestos became > ubiquitous, fire codes matured, firefighting technology improved, and the > insurance industry laid down stringent requirements for coverage. > > There are common-sense compromises that sit between complete complacency > and abatement regardless of cost. New York City Local Law 76/85 required > asbestos to be removed in the cases of demolitions and renovations, but did > not call for it to be removed proactively from all places where it existed. > Theater > remains an iconic industry in New York City, and many theaters continue to > have asbestos curtains. > > The same calculus features in global attitudes toward asbestos. Even as > the developed world has abandoned asbestos, others have expanded their > production. The two leading producers are Russia and Kazakhstan, which have > built upon Soviet-era operations to account for over 83 percent of all > exports. The market is similarly concentrated on the importers side as well > – the three largest importers of asbestos account for over 65 percent of > all imports, and the top ten are all in Asia. Russia is itself a major > consumer, in third place behind China and India. > > India, where asbestos is called ‘the poor man’s material’ and asbestos > roofs are an alternative to safer, but more expensive, tin or fiberglass > roofs, is also beginning to move away from asbestos. The country banned > the domestic production of asbestos in 1986, but not its use, becoming > the largest importer of asbestos in the world by 2003. In 2011, the > Supreme Court of India denied a public interest filing to ban asbestos, > favoring continued regulation by states instead. In 2018, the western > state of Maharashtra forbade the inclusion of asbestos in regional > development plans. > > The following year, the southern state of Kerala ordered the removal of > asbestos roofing in schools. > > The impact on trade figures has been slow but certain. The global trade in > asbestos fell from over $500 million to under $300 million from 2012–2018, > with India reducing imports by over $100 million, the most of any country. > The next-largest importers, Indonesia and China, also cut down. As these > countries grow richer, they too may soon decide that the costs of asbestos > have come to outweigh its benefits. > > Author Mano Majumdar is a management consultant at a global consulting > firm. He has a background in chemical engineering, and has taught at a > leading Canadian business school > > -- > On Facebook, please join https://www.facebook.com/groups/keralaiyerstrust > > We are now on Telegram Mobile App also, please join > > Pattars/Kerala Iyers Discussions: https://t.me/PattarsGroup > > Kerala Iyers Trust Decisions only posts : https://t.me/KeralaIyersTrust > > Kerala Iyers Trust Group for Discussions: > https://t.me/KeralaIyersTrustGroup > --- > You received this message because you are subscribed to the Google Groups > "KeralaIyers" group. > To unsubscribe from this group and stop receiving emails from it, send an > email to [email protected]. > To view this discussion on the web visit > https://groups.google.com/d/msgid/keralaiyers/56908253.4349341.1700749351437%40mail.yahoo.com > <https://groups.google.com/d/msgid/keralaiyers/56908253.4349341.1700749351437%40mail.yahoo.com?utm_medium=email&utm_source=footer> > . > -- On Facebook, please join https://www.facebook.com/groups/keralaiyerstrust We are now on Telegram Mobile App also, please join Pattars/Kerala Iyers Discussions: https://t.me/PattarsGroup Kerala Iyers Trust Decisions only posts : https://t.me/KeralaIyersTrust Kerala Iyers Trust Group for Discussions: https://t.me/KeralaIyersTrustGroup --- You received this message because you are subscribed to the Google Groups "KeralaIyers" group. 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