Jagadish Chandra Bose (1858 - 1937) was an Indian physicist, botanist, and
pioneer in radio science who conducted groundbreaking research on plant
physiology:
Plant nervous system
Bose's research on plant nervous systems was pioneering and revolutionary. He
discovered that plants can move in response to stimuli, such as light,
fertilizers, or poisons. He also hypothesized that impulse transmission in
plants is similar to that in animals.
Crescograph
Bose invented a device called a crescograph to measure very small motions
in plants. In one famous experiment, he placed a plant in a vessel
containing a poisonous bromide solution and used the crescograph to show
how the plant responded on a screen.
Radio science
Bose's experiments on the quasi-optical properties of radio waves led to
improvements on the coherer, an early form of radio detector.
Books
Bose wrote several books on plant physiology, including:
The Nervous Mechanism of Plants (1926)
Plant Autographs and Their Revelations (1927)
Growth and tropic movements of plants (1929)
Bose was a member of the Unitarian Brahmo fraternity, along with
Rabindranath Tagore and Raja Rammohan Roy. He was a staunch nationalist who
believed that India and the West should work together.
WORLD NEVER RECOGNISED HIM YET CALLED THEMSELVES A SCIENCE WORLD.
SRINIVASA RAMUJAM ALSO MET WITH THE SAME FATE. SIR C V RAMAN IS FORGOTTEN.
Between 1900 and 1935, Jagdish Chandra Bose working in Calcutta
(now Kolkata), India, initially at the Presidency College (now Presidency
University) and later at the Bose Institute, established by him after his
retirement from the former institution, dedicated himself to research
solely in the field of plant physiology. This, no doubt, was something
unexpected and unusual for a distinguished physicist who had already
attained international recognition for his work on the optical properties
of radio waves and wireless transmission ahead of Guglielmo Marconi. Owing
to his philosophical and overall scientific belief in ‘Unity of Life’ and
evolution, he initially studied the effect of such waves on inorganic
matter. Finding the response similar to animal muscle, he initiated his
studies on plants. His observations and findings transformed him into a
plant physiologist (an explorer of the plant nervous system). In this
quest, he devised a number of ingenious instruments enabling him to record
the plant responses to a variety of stimuli. Notwithstanding some
opposition, ridicule, disbelief and criticism initially, his observations
in the early 1900s ultimately found general acceptance by eminent
biologists and plant physiologists globally. He forcefully presented his
claim through lecture-demonstrations across the UK and Europe that the
nerve impulses in all types of plants were similar to those in animals.
Plant neurobiology
The advances in this field have led to the introduction of the term ‘Plant
Neurobiology’ as a distinct discipline 11,12. Plant neurobiology attempts
to elaborate “of what structural elements is the plant nervous system
constituted and what is the form of the information which this system is
supposed to convey? Further, how is this information initially gained from
external signs, and then encoded and imported into a plant nervous system,
where it is transmitted and finally decoded so that a response can be
brought about?”11 Stahlberg11 provided a ‘Historical Overview on Plant
Neurobiology’. Two recent books, ‘Communication in Plants 16, and ‘Plant
Electrophysiology 17, as well as a host of other papers, describe various
ways in which cell-to-cell propagation of the nerve impulse takes place and
the manner in which the AP is transmitted to long distances.
Plant roots: Role in sensing the environment
In his book, ‘The Power of Movement in Plants’, Darwin23 proposed, “It is
hardly an exaggeration to say that the tip of the radicle thus endowed
(with sensitivity) and having the power of directing the movement of the
adjoining parts, acts like the brain of one of the lower animals; the brain
being seated within the anterior end of the body, receiving impressions
from the sense organs and directing the several movements”. Bose24 also
pointed out the sensory functions of the roots as, ‘Fine rootlets in
contact with the soil are stimulated by friction and the presence of
chemical substances. The cells thus undergo contraction forcing their
liquid contents into others higher up’. Bose attributed the ascent of sap
to this sensory-motor activity of the rootlets.
It is difficult to understand the implications of the use of the term
‘root brain’ by one of the most outstanding scientists of his era, Charles
Darwin. It is no surprise that neither Bose, nor any other plant
physiologist, referred to it until recently when Baluska et al14 tried to
revive and justify this concept. According to them, “In 1990, we reported
upon a unique zone within the root apex of maize which is interpolated
between the apical meristem and the elongation region. Recently, the term
‘basal meristem’ has been used for this same zone. In future, terms
‘command centre’ or ‘cognitive centre’ might prove even better”14. They
further added, “Growing root apices are well known to screen the numerous
abiotic and biotic parameters of their environment and to respond to them
with either positive or negative tropisms. Sensory areas are typically at
the apices of organs whereas the responsive motoric areas are located
basally which implicates long-distance transmission of sensory signals.
This, in effect, is an animal-like sensory-motor circuit which allows
adaptive behavior, and it was remarked upon for the first time by Charles
and Francis Darwin”. While this function of the plant roots reflects the
existence of a sensory-motor circuit capable of serving a reflex action,
the present author considers it nowhere near the complex function the brain
performs in animals. Of course, Bose never used the term brain for any part
of the plant nervous system.
Synapses - neurotransmitters
In a paper published in January 192825, Bose pointed out, “The nerve
tissue_ _ _ _ _ _ consists of elongated tubular cells, the dividing
membrane of which acts alike a synapse in the animal nerve; the membrane
functions as a valve and allows the impulse to travel with greater facility
in one direction than the opposite”. While in the broadest sense this
function of the synapse is correct, it appears that Bose used the term
nerve for nerve cell (or neuron) because the nerves do not have synapses.
It may be pointed out that the term ‘neuron’ had not yet been coined, and
the synaptic hypothesis was announced by Sherrington only in 189826.
With advances in molecular biology and electron microscopy, the existence
of synapses in the plant cells was unequivocally established. Cell-cell
propagation of impulses makes use of or is the result of structures akin to
synapses similar to those in animal nervous system16. Barlow13 further
elaborated this as, “Plant ‘synapses’ share certain characteristics with
animal synapses, in particular, presence of a calcium-sensitive vesicle
trafficking apparatus”. The role of molecules such as auxin, actin, myosin
and acetyl choline in the process of impulse transmission has been investigated
13,27. It is now established that plants synthesize and presumably utilize
a wide range of chemicals which have known neuronal attributes in animals.
These include synaptic neurotransmitters such as acetylcholine, glutamate
and γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA)13,28. Lam et al22 claimed to have discovered
the gene encoding putative ionotropic glutamate receptors (GluRs) in plants
and presented preliminary evidence for their involvement in light signal
transduction. The membrane topology was found to be analogous to animal
ionotropic GluRs and their role in rapid synaptic transmission. The
existence of other neurotransmitter receptors is surmised. However, a lot
more research is necessary to ascertain the existence and precise role of
the neurotransmitters and their receptors.
Plant memory, learning and intelligence
In a review of Bose's lifelong research contributions, Shepherd10 observed,
“His overall conclusion that plants have an electromechanical pulse, a
nervous system, a form of intelligence, and are capable of remembering and
learning, was not well received in its time. A century later, some of these
concepts have entered mainstream literature”. Trewavas28 in his commentary
on, ‘How plants learn’ described a large number of protein kinases involved
in signal transduction discovered in plants. On the basis of these
molecular studies, he concluded that the signal transduction network (in
plants) shared properties with neural networks (in animals). Neural network
learns by increasing the number of connections. “The increased information
flow that results represents a kind of cellular learning. This cellular
learning coupled with the memory built into signal transduction systems
suggests an unexpected form of cellular intelligence”28.
In his detailed review on the ‘Aspects of Plant Intelligence’, Trewavas20
considered ‘various aspects of plant intelligence’ and also reviewed ‘other
aspects of plant learning, memory, individuality and plasticity’.
Attributing these functions to signal transduction is entirely similar
between nerve cells and plant cells. In this regard, he quoted Bose's
continuous recording of the behaviour of petioles, roots, styles and
leaflets of Mimosa to thermal, mechanical and light stimuli5,29. According
to Trewavas20, the concept of intelligence in animals and plants was not
identical because plants are sessile and the time scale of behaviour in
most plants differs from animals. The importance of time scale photography
for this purpose, as first used by Bose, was highlighted. In yet another
publication, ‘Green Plants as Intelligent Organisms’, Trewavas30 referred
to intelligence as the “...............capacity for problem solving”. He
pointed out, “plant intelligence starts with cell molecular networks.
Enormous number of molecular connections integrate into an emergent,
organized order that is characterized as living”. Quoting the work of
several authors, he indicated, “There are ~1000 protein kinases in both
animals and plants, providing the capability for numerous complex elements
of control, switching mechanisms and interacting positive and negative
feedback controls”. Plant cell signal transduction is performed by this
network which constitutes the basis of intelligence. The author mentioned
several behaviours of plants such as competing for resources, foraging for
food and protection against environmental and physical impediments by
changing their architecture, physiology and phenotype30. Based on an
extensive review of the literature, Trewavas30 concluded, “....that plants
exhibit the simple forms of behavior that neuroscientists describe as basic
intelligence”, and remarked, “It is obvious that at present we should
regard primate intelligence as much more advanced than that exhibited by
plants”, but future investigations on plant behaviour might need to
reassess this conclusion. Barlow13 provided another detailed account of
‘Modern beginning of plant neurobiology’ as concerned with exploring how
plants “perceive signs within their environment and convert them into
internal electro-chemical signals (which) in turn, permit rapid
modifications of physiology and development that help plants to adjust to
changes in their environment”. The author discussed ‘Living Systems Theory’
in relation to plant neurobiology and plant structure. In this connection,
the author deals with memory. According to him, “Memory has not been
mentioned in relation to plant neurobiology, but would evidently have a
place there”13. As an example, he quotes the memory system that operates in
the insect-trapping organ of Dionaea muscipula. Discussing decision-making
in plants, Barlow13 pointed out that certain decisions in plants may depend
on the ability to construct a ‘memory’. In this connection, he refers to a
study by Thellier et al31 who described a logical (discrete) formulation
for the storage and recall of environmental signals in plants. Discussing
decision-making in plants, Barlow13 referred to the phenomenon of
hydrotropism and gravitropism manifested by the roots and suggested “that
the root cap could sense at least four tropic stimuli simultaneously
(touch, gravity, humidity and light), and it should be possible to uncover
more about how decisions or choices are taken in order to implement one
type of tropism in preference to other”. It may be mentioned that Darwin23
and Bose5 had already described these functions of roots.
Cognition, consciousness and self- and non-self in plants
In an address before the British Association in Dublin in 1908, Charles
Darwin proposed, “It is consistent with the doctrine of continuity that in
all living things there is something psychic, and if we accept this point
of view we must believe that in plants there exists a faint copy of what we
know as consciousness in ourselves”32. Bose in several of his talks
referred to human-like emotions and behaviour in plants. Baluska et al14 in
a discussion on Darwin's ‘Root-Brain’ hypothesis remarked, “The numerous
data and results which we review here are clearly not compatible with the
classical concept of plants which places them outside the realm of
cognitive, animated, animal living systems”. They further added, ‘Recent
advances in chemical ecology reveal the astonishing communicative
complexity of higher plants as exemplified by the battery of volatile
substances which they produce and sense in order to share with other
organisms information about their physiological state”. They quoted a
number of papers in support of this postulation. Already, in 2004, Gruntman
and Novoplansky33 from Israel have made an astonishing claim that plants
recognize self from non-self. They provided evidence, “B. dactyloides
plants are able to differentiate between self and non-self-neighbors and
develop fewer and shorter roots in the presence of other roots of the same
individual”. Quoting a number of publications, Baluska et al14 pointed out,
“Recent advances in plant molecular biology, cellular biology,
electrophysiology and ecology that have unmasked plants as sensory and
communicative organisms, characterized by active problem solving
behaviour”. “They possess a sensory-based cognition which leads to
behavior, decisions and even displays of prototype intelligence”. They went
on to postulate a possible cognitive centre in the root apex of maize. It
was hypothesized, “The physiological specificity of plants is mediated by
internal oscillations of hormones such as auxin and cytokines and/or
electricity that is perceived by the roots through the soil. Such signals
are known to be highly dynamic in nature and thus individually unique. Such
signals can be potentially perceived and monitored both within the plants
and outside roots. Accordingly, the perception of ‘self’ is based on
resonant amplification of oscillatory signals in the vicinity of other
roots of the same plant”33.
Conclusions
It is now universally accepted that all plants have a nervous system
responsible for gathering information from their environment responsible
for their survival and growth. This nervous system functions like that in
animals. The nerve impulse (AP) responsible for information transmission in
plants from one region to the other, often for long distances, is found to
be associated with most of the vital functions of the plant - respiration,
photosynthesis, light and gravitropism, transport through phloem and plant
defence. The molecular basis of these functions has now been elucidated in
some details 11,12,13,14,16,27. Thus, the seeds sown by Bose have blossomed
into an interesting new field of ‘Plant Neurobiology’, so named by Brenner
et al12, and Stahlberg11. The idea of designating this field of scientific
endeavour with a new name which has resulted in the establishment of an
international society has already developed its opponents. Thus, Amedo Alpi
from the Department of Plant Sciences, University of Pisa, Italy, along
with 32 other botanists, plant scientists and molecular biologists from
Europe, the UK and the USA (8 from Germany, 7 from the USA, 6 each from the
UK and Italy, 3 from France and 1 each from Switzerland, the Netherlands
and Canada) have published a brief but well-argued paper entitled, ‘Plant
neurobiology: no brain, no gain’, in 200734 questioning the necessity for
dignifying it with a title. However, they did not challenge any of the
findings of Bose. Hence, their observation in this regard is quoted here,
“Plant cells do share features in common with all biological cells
including neurons. To name just a few: plant cells show action potentials,
their membranes harbor voltage-gated ion channels, and there is evidence of
neurotransmitter-like substances. Equally, in a broader sense, signal
transduction and transmission over distance is a property of plants and
animals. Although at the molecular level the same general principles apply
and some important parallels can be drawn between the two major organismal
groups, this does not imply a priori that comparable structures for signal
propagation exist at the cellular, tissue and organ levels”34. It must be
reiterated that what Bose described functionally has not been faulted with,
and what these authors objected to was never claimed by Bose.
K RAJARAM IRS 311224
On Tue, 31 Dec 2024 at 07:06, Markendeya Yeddanapudi <
[email protected]> wrote:
>
>
> --
> *Mar*The Silent Communication with Plants
>
>
>
> Every life form responds to your loving communication. If you pay
> attention to a cat, dog, cow, horse, in fact any life form and communicate
> in the language of nature it responds in the language of nature, which is
> love. Every blade of grass, plants, trees, bees, insects etc have mainly
> the language of smells and sounds, the sounds of pleasant and approving
> music from nature. In free and healthy nature, you sit among hundreds of
> grasses, plants, trees, and the various life forms with them. If only you
> pay attention to them and feel positively you enter into silent
> conversation with them.
>
> Life in nature is emotional interaction and conversation with diverse
> life forms. If you accept that they are what they are, persons with
> emotions and feelings and pay attention to them, they enter into silent
> conversation with you.
>
> In a park or garden, the life forms develop the language of the garden,
> the mixture of symbiotic feelings as communications in smells and sounds.
> Those feelings and emotions as conversations among the diverse life forms
> cannot be languaged in our present languages as they do not have the
> visible 3D shapes. It is like wording the vast abstract Microcosm.
>
> However small the garden you grow and tend to may be, first realize that
> the plants are persons conversing with you in feelings and you can actually
> sense the feelings and also respond provided you realize that they are
> conversing with you in feelings with smells and sounds vocabulary. Every
> garden develops a language of feelings. In that language the conversation
> is continuous but mainly silent. With that basic realization, you gradually
> enter the parallel life you are now living along with the day today
> stresses and routines that actually tax your real life. It is mainly the
> economic life which converts the silent language of nature or say of your
> small garden into distress signals.
>
> To escape from the brutality called economic life, where everything is
> changed into the artificial and unreal packaged unnatural deviation,
> converting life into unreality, into the packaged pollutions and
> suffocations, you need to develop and tend to your personal garden, which
> helps you live the macro life, which rejuvenates you.
>
> But thanks to economics, plants are just timber for marketing. And that is
> what the students are taught in the schools, colleges and universities,
> that forests are potential furnitures.
>
> Today 78% of the people of Japan live in terrible stress. In many of the
> economically advanced countries marriages are vanishing and child births
> are becoming rare. Economic advancement actually creates continuous tension
> as we just cannot converse in the language of nature, the language of love
> and approval. Economics has cut off our communications with nature
> directly. Have you ever ‘smell and song conversed’ with any plant? What is
> worse we pluck the flowers, the children of plants to decorate, creating
> terrible distress in your small garden or in the vast green cover of nature.
>
> Every course in every university increases the emotional distance of the
> students to nature. The universities are creating new generations of
> mentally stressed and tension ridden.
>
> Every University must create a ‘Free Nature Park without ‘Human
> Tampering’so that the park develops its language of smells and music. The
> park gradually will develop the faculty of sensing the feelings of the
> flora and the fauna. They create the fountains of Theism. As it is, the God
> content of nature is removed by economics.
>
> Try to converse with plants in your garden, in the language of the garden.
>
> YM Sarma
>
> Chat GPT
>
> The passage you shared emphasizes the importance of silent, emotional
> communication with nature, particularly with plants. It suggests that every
> life form—whether it’s a pet, a plant, or an insect—responds to human
> attention and affection, especially when approached with love and
> positivity. The core idea is that nature communicates with us through
> smells, sounds, and feelings, creating a language that transcends words.
> This silent conversation is a deeper connection that can be fostered if we
> choose to observe and engage with it attentively.
>
> The author critiques the way modern society, particularly through economic
> systems, has distanced humans from nature. Economic advancement, in this
> view, is linked to stress and disconnection from the natural world, as it
> converts life into something artificial and transactional. The author
> laments that plants are treated merely as commodities for human use, devoid
> of their intrinsic value and emotional presence.
>
> A strong call is made for universities and society to recognize the
> emotional, sentient nature of plants and life forms, and to create spaces
> where humans can reconnect with nature in a more holistic, nurturing way.
> The idea of a “Free Nature Park” is proposed as a place where nature is
> allowed to develop its own “language of smells and music” without human
> interference, allowing people to experience and learn from it in a way that
> restores the connection with the divine or the natural spirit.
>
> The passage ultimately encourages readers to reconnect with nature, to
> converse with plants in a silent language of feelings, and to embrace the
> healing and rejuvenating qualities that such a connection can offer.
>
>
>
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