A great researched article by famous Iyengar on astronomy
The archaic astronomy of *PS *is quite unlike that of later *Siddhantas
*that give the number of revolutions of different planets in a long period
of years called *kalpa*14*. PS *on the other hand knows all the planets but
is too primitive in describing their motion. Thus, this seems to belong to
the early stages of Hindu astronomy, when the subject was still rooted in
empirical observations without appeal to computations. *PS *treats many
configurations as anomalous and hence portentous. To conclude an
observation to be anomalous one has to have an idea of what is normal. This
average behaviour could have only come out of long observations. About the
Sun, besides the seasons in terms of four-and-half *nakshatras *stated
above, colours in the various seasons and sunspots are described. Position
of the Sun at solstices is mentioned. Moon is described in terms of its
colour, shape and position with the stars. Association of moon with other
planets and possibility of occultation of Mars, Venus, Jupiter and Saturn
by Moon is mentioned. Next, Rāhu, the imaginary dark planet responsible for
causing solar and lunar eclipses is discussed. Concept of Rāhu as the node
or point of intersection of the lunar orbit with the ecliptic is not
present. *PS *mentions the prognosis of eclipses based on precursors
related with the shape, colour and such other observable anomalies of the
Sun and Moon. Obviously the real causes for either solar or lunar eclipses
were not known. Varāha-mihira in *BS *strongly criticizes the precursors of
Parāśara as invalid. Nevertheless, *PS *contains statements, which
presuppose systematic observations as can be inferred from the following.
*Our teachers said: moon gets eclipsed at six months and sun at three
months' interval. Seventeen, thirteen and thirty-five monthlies are the
three Visandhi eclipses of moon. *The above statement implies that there
were several lunar eclipses observed at six full moons apart. Perhaps once
a new eclipse in such a series started the subsequent ones were
predictable. The exceptions mentioned, as *Visandhi *should have been the
observed intervals of eclipses that were not at six months. *PS *also
introduces a three-and-half year cycle of *Parvan *(syzygy) at six months
interval, which has been borrowed by *BS *and other later writers. *PS
*classifies
eclipses based on colour, the way the shadow spreads and moves out of the
solar and lunar orbs. Even though both solar and lunar eclipses are covered
under one heading called *Rāhu-adbhuta *in *AS *and *Rāhu-cāra *in *BS*, it
is the lunar that has received more attention. All the five planets are
described at length, starting with Mars. Tracking Mars should have been
difficult, since unlike other planets no visibility or movement number is
given. But considerable effort has been made to verbally describe the
retrograde motion of Mars. The movement of Mercury is traced inseven lanes
depending on its station with the stars along the ecliptic.
yogāntikā. Prakriti is with stars Bharani, Krttikā, Rohini, Svātī. Miśrā is
followed with stars Mṛgaśira, Ārdrā, Maghā and Āślesā. Samksiptā is with
stars Punarvasū, Pusya,Pūrva and Uttara-phalgunī. Tīksnā includes the four
stars from Pūrvābhādra andJyesthā. Ghorā is along Śravana, Dhanisthā,
Śatabhisak and Citrā. Pāpā is along Hastā,Viśākhā and Anūrādhā. Yogāntikā
is along Mūla and the two Āsādha. Along these sevenpaths it (Mercury) is
visible for 40, 30, 22, 18, 15, 11 and 9 days respectively. It sets inthe
same way for the same duration.
The above text is not available in AS, but is given by Utpala while
commenting on BS(VII.8-13). He remarks that even though the above figures
are not correct as per calculations, Varāha has reported them as Parāśarā’s
opinion. The months when Mercury can be seen are also mentioned. But in the
available text no specific cycle is stated. The sidereal motion of Jupiter
is clearly enunciated as Jupiter, traveling two-and-quarter nakshatras in a
year leads to good crops.
This motion amounts to the well-known twelve year sidereal cycle. PS lists
portents related to Jupiter’s rise in conjunction with different stars,
starting from Krttikā, but makes no mention of Jovian years or of the
associated sixty year cycle. The motion ofVenus as per Parāśara is not
stated by either Varāha-mihira or Utpala, but is detailed inAS.
(For Venus), in east and west three routes called north, central and south
are prescribed for rise and setting. Further, dividing the intermediate
space five fold as, south, north,central, north-central and south-central,
five routes have to be devised. Setting in the east,(Venus) rises in the
west along north, north-central, central, south-central and south routes
after fifty-five, sixty, seventy-five, eighty-one and ninety days
respectively. Setting In west it rises in east after six, eight, twelve,
fifteen and twenty-four days (along the above routes respectively). Rising
in the east it travels twenty-one stars in nine months.
Rising in the west it travels nineteen stars in eight months.
As per PS, the visibility in east is for 270 days followed by an average
invisibility of 68days. Similarly in the west visibility is for 240 days
followed by 13 days of invisibility on average. Thus, the Venus cycle
according to Parāśara is 591 days. As per modern astronomy, it is known
that Venus as a morning star is seen for some 263 days and afterwards it
remains invisible for nearly 50 days. Then it rises in the west to be seen
from another 263 days and to be invisible for about 8 days before rising in
the east. The Average synodic period of Venus is 584 days. The visibility
of the planet depends sensitively on several parameters and hence the
figures stated by Parāśara have to be taken as remarkably accurate. The
last planet is Saturn described in terms of its sidereal motion.
His (Saturn’s) travel through twenty-seven stars is for twenty-eight years.
There are three paths. The setting period (in the three paths?) will be 27,
30 and a day more or less.Otherwise it is a bad omen.
It is noted that PS could only be describing an observational tradition.
Sun’s associated with seasons and the corresponding position of sun with
the stars along the ecliptic is known. Reasons for eclipses were perhaps
not known, but observations were done to note that lunar eclipses were to
be expected at a six month interval, with some exceptions. The Naming and
counting of seven parvans in a sequence, at six-month intervals is an
interesting exercise the reasons for which are lost. The total number of
lunations in such a series adds to forty-two. Among the eight celestial
objects considered above, Rāhu and thus the eclipse phenomenon gets more
textual space. But Parāśara conspicuously devotes more attention to Ketu
than to Rāhu.
*Comets of Parāśara*
Ketu-adbhuta (Comet-wonder) is the 8th chapter in AS. Parāśara classifies
comets into even groups making a total of 101 comets.
*There are 101 comets. Among them 16 are born out of mrtyu (Death), 12 are
from āditya(Sun), 10 (11?) are due to anger of Rudra, 6 are out of Pitāmaha
(Brahma or Creator),15 are children of angry Uddālaka, 5 are from the
laughter of Prajāpati, 17 are from the forehead of Mārīci and Kaśyapa
(stars of U. Major), 3 are from Vibhāvasu, 14 are coeval with Moon when the
ocean was churned. One is born of Dhūma (smoke or dust)and one is from the
anger of Brahma. From the rising of twenty-six of these effects are
expressed. We shall describe them by name, form, effect and their
time.Therein arise three related to Death namely, Vasāketu, Asthikalu and
Śastraketu one after another. Elapsing 130 years in the Floods, Vasāketu,
big and sharp, with its crown bent towards north having risen in the west,
causes immediate destruction. Harshsthiketu appears in the same period
causing famine. Śastraketu rising sharply in the*
*east results in destruction of weapon handling kings.*
The alternate reading for *samplavesu *is *samplave yuge. *This would mean *in
the era of theloods. Asthikalu *(Bone-comet) and *Vasāketu *(Marrow-comet)
are said to have the same transit period. The two may be identical, seen
first in the west and later in the east. The Text of Utpala is almost
similar, with *bhārgavāh *in place of *mārtyavāh*. Varāha-mihirawrites
about the same comets, perhaps borrowed from the same source, but never
refers to the year number and the Floods. The word denoting the year number
needs attention in its interpretation. The year number of *Vasāketu *is
stated as *trimśat-varsa-śatam*. Contemporary Sanskrit use, this would be
taken to mean 3000. This is how Bhat has translated the above word.
However, ancient evidence indicates the meaning to be different. This is
seen in the explanation offered for a similar compound word. Garga isquoted
by Utpala and Ballala-sena about *Viśvarūpā, *which are celestial objects
causing fire. Garga describes them as,The count is here given as
*vimśat-graha-śatam.
*Ballāla-sena explains this as:
*vimśatyadhikham śatam ityarthah*| Varāha-mihira in *BS (11.23) *and
Utpala in his commentary on the same verse give the number of *Viśvarūpā *as
120 without ambiguity.Thus, in ancient India, twenty-above-hundred (not
twenty-times-hundred) was the accepted meaning of the above number word.
Hence *trimśat-varsa-śatam *should be taken to mean 130 years. With this
in the background the further comet sequence is given following *AS*.
*There Kumudaketu is seen in the west at the end of the transit of Vasā and
other comets.*It is seen for one night like a bright spray of cow’s milk,
with its head bent eastwards.This does good to people for a period of ten
years. In the west it causes various diseases to the citizens. Kapālaketu,
among the offspring of Ādityas, rises in the east. It is seen on a new moon
evening with a smoky flaming crown, moving in the center of the sky. Seen
125 years and three fortnights after Kumudaketu, it induces drought and
famine upon appearance. For years equal to the months of visibility, it
reduces the autumn grain yield by half and also uses away (destroys) half
the population.
At the end of Kapālaketu’s transit, Maniketu is seen in the west for a
night, subtle like thestar Arundhatī (Alcor in U.Major), with its milky
white sharp and stationary crown bent towards east. Starting from its rise,
for a period of two-and-half months it produces health and abundant food
for people. If seen for a longer period it increases generation of inferior
life forms (insects and worms). Kaliketu, born out of Rudra’s anger during
the sacrifice of Daksa, rises after 300 years and 9 months. From the east,
along the ecliptic,with a harsh copper-red colour head like the tip of a
trident, it travels one-third (three parts?) of the sky to be seen at the
horizon. For years, equal to the number of months seen, the comet having
reduced the population to one-third, leaves eight measures of the grain
yield. *Then (appears) Calaketu related to Pitāmaha. Having risen 115
years after Kaliketu in the west, with a crown of the size of a finger
joint, bent southwards, following one-third of the sky, as it travels north
exhibiting a head like the tip of a trident, it moves close to the star of
Brahma (Abhijit), touches Brahmarāśi, Saptarsi (U.Major), Dhruva (Poletar)
and returns half the sky to set in the south. It does horrible deeds in the
sky, shakes the universe and the earth for a period of ten months and
destroys a populous province in madhya-deśa. It troubles other places also
for 18 months by occasional fear of enemies,drought, disease and death.*
Kaliketu and Calaketu are described as producing ill effects on earth. The
word Kali symply *difficulty or evil, *as in the word Kali-yuga. Calaketu
means Moving-comet andaptly its movement to north and then sudden turn
southwards before setting is described.This is one among the few cases
where our ancients have noted the transit of the comet with respect to
stars. The extent of both the comets is described by the word
*nabhas-tribhāga.*
This would mean one-third of the visible sky, approximately 600 in extent.
Thecomet trail should have been spectacularly long. Calaketu is said to
have risen in the west, that is after the sun set. We may speculate that
this could have been so because of the nearness of the comet to the Sun and
consequent invisibility in daylight. This may imply that alaketu could have
traversed between Sun and Earth. Among the background stars mentioned,
Saptarsi refers to U.Major, without much confusion. Dhruva can not be taken
s α- U.Minor, since before *c*1500 B.C. the pole star was α-Draconis
(Thuban). After this period till about 500 B.C. there was no recognizable
pole star. Mention of both *Brāhmanakshatram*and *Brahma-rāśi *brings in
difficulties in interpretation. From the context,these should be indicating
two different stations of the comet. Following Varāha-mihira(*BS *11.33-36)
if we take one of this to be star *Abhijit, *the other may refer to the
regionaround star Rohinī (Aldebaran), since this has Prajāpati or creator
as its deity. Presently,following medieval Indian astronomy, *Abhijit *is
identified with star Vega14, which is farnorth of the ecliptic. But, in
more ancient times, *Abhijit *was well recognized to have been along the
ecliptic, between stars *Utaarāsādhā and Śravana15. *Mahābhāratametaphorically
records the vanishing of *Abhijit *from the sky16. Madhyadeśa, literally
means middle country and its boundaries have changed over long periods of
time. As perVarāha-mihira this includes Prayāga, Avanti, Ujjayini and
Pushkara forest in present dayRajasthan. In the north this region was up to
River Devikā. What constituted the middle land before Varāha’s time?
Bharadwaj17 identifies the *madhyadeśa *of Vedic times to have been between
Rivers Sarasvati and Drishadvati, including Kurukshetra. This matches with
the description of *madhyadeśa *as per *PS*, given in a later chapter on
astrogeography18. Not all comets brought misery, some of them were
benevolent like*Jalaketu.*.
*Jalaketu (Water-comet) having appeared when nine months of work of
Calaketu is still remaining initiates Krta. Rising in the west with its
head bent to the west, with a wellformedstar it gives within nine months
health and plenty of food to the people. It Compensates for the bad effects
of other celestial objects. Comets Ūrmī and others ending with Śīta appear
at intervals of 13, 14 and 18 years. If they are sharp they produce good
effects, otherwise the opposite (effects are indicated). They destroy
inferior life forms. After the work of eight of these, Bhavaketu is seen in
the east for a night. It isf the size of the north star of the Krttikā
cluster (Pleiades) with the crown bent clockwise, like the tail of a lion.
It produces plenty of food for months equal to themuhūrtas it is seen. If
it is harsh (to look at) it produces fatal diseases.*
Ten out of the twenty-six comets of Paraśara are covered in the above
paragraph. Theword *Krta*, here means *good-period *in contrast with the
word *Kali. *Utpala also quotes *PS*giving the names of comets between *Urmi
*and *Śīta*. No year number is given for *Jalaketu*and *Bhavaketu*. But
indirectly the eight comets starting with *Urmi *account for an interval of
nearly 120 years between the above two comets.
Then, Śvetaketu, offspring of Uddālaka is seen, 110 years after Bhavaketu’s
transit, in the east at midnight, with its crown bent southwards. Along
with it is seen in the west a comet named Ka, second offspring of
Prajāpati, staying like a yoke. Both, visible for seven nights, trouble
people for ten years. If Ka is seen for twice the duration (14 nights) it
will *cause horrible effects of weapon on people. The two turning to
oily colour give good health and plentiful food.*
*Śvetaketu *or White-comet is the nineteenth member in this list. It is
said that along with this was seen another comet denoted by the single
syllable *Ka*. Utpala’s text is similar except for some grammatical
peculiarities. *PS *describes *Ka *as *yūpa-sansthāyī. *Yūpa is a technical
word, in Vedic parlance, indicating a column in the sacrificial altar.
Varāhamihiradescribes the comet *Ka *as *yugākrti. *The intended meaning
appears to be that *Ka*looked straight like a yoke or a column. It is
qualified as being both a *graha *(planet orseizer) and a *ketu *(comet).
Astronomers may like to comment on the possibility of two comets such as
the above being simultaneously observed. The names of the two comets are
equally intriguing. The son of Uddālaka is a famous name in Vedic
Literature, particularly the Upanishads19. His name appears in Mahābhārata
also as a social reformer living before the time of Pāndavas20. His
relation with his eponymous comet is not known. The word *Ka *is usually
used as a pronoun meaning *Who. *However In the Vedas *Ka *has been used as
the name of a deity also21. This raises the important question about the
possibility of some of *PS *comets being linked with Vedic deities.*At the
end of the effects of Śvetaketu (after 10 years) Padmaketu rises in the
west with its crown coloured like a lotus stalk. Moving one night brings
immense happiness for a period of seven years. Kāśyapa Svadhiketu is seen,
115 years after the transit of Padma setu, with star Jyesthā (Antares). It
is dark and harsh occupying one-third of the*
*sky recedes anti-clockwise, with a crown rotating clockwise above, like a
lock of hairs.For years equal to the number of months seen, it reduces the
population of the Aryan Groups in the middle region and north to
one-third.Āvartaketu rises in the latter half of the night, after the work
of Svadhiketu with a headlike the trunk of a conch, bent clockwise,
portending happiness to the world. For months equal to the muhūrtas seen,
it produces happiness and daily celebration in the world.Raśmiketu born of
Vibhāvasu, 100 years after Āvartaketu, appears in the star clusterKrttikā
(Pleiades) with a smoky head. Its effects are similar to that of Śvetaketu.*
*Samvartaka is seen, after a lapse of 108 years, in the evening after the
sun has set in thewest. It occupies one-third of the sky, with a thin
dreadful copper coloured spear-likehead, ejecting a jet of smoke. For years
equal to the muhūrtas of its stay, kings fight among themselves. Whichever
star it covers with its smoke, the countries associated with those stars
are troubled.*
*The precursors of Dhūmaketu are earthquakes, dullness of fire, dust veils,
exchange of heat and cold (seasons), and very harsh wind. Dhūmaketu, having
no fixed colour, shape,location and time, appears on the trees, towns,
mountains, houses, flags, chariots,elephants, camels, men, bedsteads and
vessels of the losing countries and their kings. Itportends good when it is
clear, sharp, with a clockwise shaped crown leaving the Go,Gaja and Nāga
paths to its north.*
*Dhūmaketu *or the smoky-comet is the last in the list of Parāśara.
Varāha-mihira calls this*Dhruvaketu*. Utpala’s text of Parāśara also gives
the same name. However, considering the popularity of the word *Dhūmaketu *in
the sense of a comet, the text of *AS *appears more acceptable. Vr.Garga,
to be discussed later, also names the last in the sequence as*Dhūmaketu. *The
paths called *Go, Gaja *and *Nāga *are specific regions in the night sky
defined with respect to the stars22. For example the region to the north of
stars Krttikā,Rohinī, Maghā and Viśākhā is called *Nāga-vīthī*. The above
celestial objects describedby Parāśara are unambiguously comets.
Varāha-mihira in *BS*, has only repeated in verse form whatever Parāśara
had already said about comets. Since he explicitly held the view that
comets were beyond mathematics (BS 11.1), he appears to have omitted the
yearnumbers, even if he knew them. Utpala some four hundred years later
commenting on*BS *quotes *PS *at length including the chronology starting
with the Flood, pinpointing the original source of Varāha. However, since
Varāha wrote about comets in an arbitrary order, Utpala’s *PS *text does
not read in the correct sequence. For example, Utpalamentions Kapālaketu,
which is supposed to be seen after Kumudaketu at verse 11.31 of*BS. *But *BS
*presents Kumuda after several other comets in verse 11.43.
FortunatelyBallāla-sena has preserved *PS *in the correct sequential order.
Thus one has to note that while Parāśara’s comet list in *AS *is internally
consistent, Varāha’s list in *BS *is not consistent. The mentioned year
numbers are perhaps approximate time intervals etweentwo sightings,
expressed as elapsed time. How Parāśara was able to obtain this list is not
13 apparent. It should have been only a tradition, which interestingly
started its initial point with the Flood.
*The Flood*
As per internal evidence in the text, the *samhitā *of Parāśara should have
started around1400 BC. The statement about the twenty-six comets and the
interval between some of them could be a chronological artifice to link the
initial time of *PS *with the *Samplava *or the Flood. The total number of
years in the list adds to about 1300 years, which indicates that the Flood
(inundation or deluge) should have occurred before 2500-2700 BC. These
Figures can be easily in error by a few centuries. The oldest evidence to
the Flood appears in Śatapatha Brāhmana, which is later than Rgveda but
belongs properly to Vedicliterature23. The primary contents of this
ritualistic text can be dated to *circa *3000 B.C.
based on the statement that Krttikā (Pleiades) were not moving from the
east1. The comet tradition preserved in *PS *supports this dating. The
Atharvana Veda mentions about the breaking of a boat, which may also be an
indirect reference to the above Flood24. There's a tradition that the
Floods occurred around 3100 B.C., the starting of Kaliyuga. There Have been
efforts to show that this event might have been backdated based on the
conjunction of two or more planets, particularly Saturn and Jupiter14,25.
However, *PS*connects this Flood of about the same date, with the
simultaneous appearance of two comets, with no reference to planets. The
Flood story connected with Manu’s escape from the deluge and a boat being
tied to a peak in the Himalayas is recounted in theMahābhārata also, but as
belonging to a bygone era26. Hence the Flood of *PS *should be taken to
have occurred several centuries before the inundation of Dvārakā, the
capital city of Krsna. The present author has shown that the passing
away of Krsna and hence the inundation of his city is dateable to 1443 B.C.
based on information provided in theMahābhārata, Harivamśa and the
Skanda-purāna27,48. K RAJARAM IRS 7426
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