Sugriva’s Geographical Description: The Eastern Director
While instructing the Vanara armies to search for Sītā, Sugriva describes
the geography of Jambudvīpa and surrounding regions in all four directions.
He dispatches the eastern expedition under the leadership of Vinata. Taking
Ayodhya and Prayagraj as the central reference point, Sugriva instructs the
party to proceed eastward, crossing major rivers such as the Ganga, Sarayu,
Kosi River (Kauśikī), Yamuna (Kālindī), Yāmunagiri (Vindhyachal), Sarasvati
(temple of Sarasvati on Vindhyachal) and the Son River (Śoṇa Sindhu).
The search is to extend to Mount Mandara (near Bhagalpur) and beyond into
eastern lands such as Yavadvīpa (Java in Indonesia) and Suvarṇadvīpa
(Sumatra), regions associated with precious metals. Continuing further
east on Java Island, there is a mountain named Śiśira (identified with King
Kong Hill). Beyond it, upon reaching the opposite coast of the ocean, one
encounters the Śoṇa River (the Solo River), whose waters are described as
reddish, with a deep and swiſt current. From there, the route proceeds
across the Ikṣu Samudra, Lohita Samudra, and Kṣīra Samudra, and reaches the
Ṛṣabha Mountain in central Borneo.
Further north in Borneo lies a mountain called Jātarūpa-śilā, or the
“Golden Rock Mountain” (identified with the Müller Mountains), which is said
to glitter like gold and extend across thirteen yojanas (approximately 1.67
km). The elevations of the Müller range generally vary between 1,300 and
2,000 meters. Beyond this, in the eastern direction, tends the completely
golden Udaya Mountain, identified with Mount Kinabalu in Sudarśana Dvīpa
(eastern Malaysia). Its peaks are described as touching the heavens, with a
height of one hundred yojanas (approximately 12.87 km). It is possible
that, in earlier mes, the ascent route to the summit was about 12.87 km in
length, whereas today it is approximately 8.72 km one way.
Mount Kinabalu is a massive granite pluton with a summit plateau known as
Saumanasa, measuring about ten yojanas (1.28 km) in length. Thus, Sugrīva’s
direction culminates in the region of present-day East Malaysia.
Sugriva’s Geographical Description:
The Southern Direction
Sugriva dispatches the southern expedition under the leadership of
Angada. He instructs the party to proceed southward, crossing the Vindhya
mountains and rivers such as the Narmada River, Mahanadi, Varada, Godavari
River, and Krishna River. They are to traverse regions including Mekhala,
Utkala, Daśārṇa, Avanti, Vidarbha, and Māhiṣaka, and further search the
territories of Vaṅga, Kaliṅga, and adjacent Kaushika regions. Sugrīva
directs them to explore the entire Dandakaranya—its mountains, rivers, and
caves— followed by the course of the Godāvarī. The provinces of Andhra,
Puṇḍra, *Chola, Pāṇḍya, and Kerala* are to be thoroughly searched. The
expedition then proceeds to the Malaya Mountain and the Kaveri River, where
they are to meet Agastya, and thereaſter cross the Thamirabarani River.
From there, they are to reach the Pāṇḍya kingdom and its capital
Kā(p)vāṭapuram, likely situated near the mouth of the Thamirabarani in
Tirunelveli. Sugrīva further instructs them to proceed to Mahendragiri and
then to Laṅkādvīpa, located about 100 yojanas (≈12.87 km) across the sea.
Aſter crossing the ocean, they are to search Pushpitaka Hill in Sri Lanka,
followed by Sūryavān Mountain, Vaidyuta Hill, and Kunjara Mountain, where
Vishvakarma is said to have built a mansion for Agastya.
Finally, they are to reach Bhogavati (identified with Kandy), the abode of
the Nāgas (descendants of Rishi Kashyapa), and proceed to Ṛṣabha Parvata,
possibly corresponding to Namunukula, the southernmost hill. Thus,
Sugrīva’s description of the southern direction culminates in the highlands
of Sri Lanka.
33
Sugriva’s Geographical Description: The Western Direction
Sugriva dispatches the western expedition under the leadership of
Archishman, described as he son of the sage Mārīca. He instructs the party
to search the regions of Saurāṣṭra, Bāhlika, Śūra, Abhīra, and Candracitra.
Aſter traversing the mountainous tracts of the west, they are to proceed
toward the western ocean and survey the coastal settlements, including Muraci
(Karachi?), Jātapura, Avanti, and Aṅgalepa, along with the forest of
Alakṣita and its surrounding provinces and towns.
At the confluence of the Indus River with the sea, Sugrīva describes
a prominent mountain named Hemagiri (identified with the Kirthar range),
said to possess a hundred peaks. From there, the expedion is directed to
Mount Pāriyātra, whose plateau is described as extending for one hundred
yojanas (approximately 12.87 km). This has been associated with the Gorakh
Hill region near Hinglaj Mata Temple. The route then proceeds to Mount
Vajra, possibly corresponding to the mineral-rich hills of the Khuzdar
region in Baluchistan, and onward to Chakravān mountain, which may be
identified with the Sulaiman Mountains, noted for their crescent-like
formation. From there, the expedition moves toward Varāha Parvata,
associated here with regions near Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, followed by Meghavān,
identified with the Hindu Kush range.
Within this range lies Mount Meru (Sāvarṇi Meru), which has been identified
with Tirich Mir. The reference to a vast expanse of 10,000 yojanas (100
yojanas = 12.87 km and 10,000 ojanas = 1287 km) symbolically underscores
that the range of the Hindu Kush extends for approximately 1,287 km from
the northeast to the southwest. Thus, Sugrīva’s description of the western
direction culminates in the high peaks of the Hindu Kush region.
Sugriva’s Geographical Description: The Northern Direction
Sugriva dispatches the northern expedition under the leadership of
Shatabali. He instructs the party to proceed northward through the regions
of Mleccha, Pulinda, Śūrasena, Prasthala, Bharata, Kuru, Madraka, Kāmboja,
Yavana, Śaka, Aratiaka, Bāhlika, Ṛṣika, Paurava, Tankana, China, Paramachina,
Nihāra, and Darada, and thereaſter to explore the Himalayan region. {{Darada
(Dardistan)Historical Location: The Darada kingdom is an ancient geographic
and tribal region located immediately north and north-west of the Kashmir
Valley, primarily centered around the Gilgit-Baltistan region along the
Indus (Sindhu) River. The people were known in Sanskrit texts as the
Daradas. Today, the descendants of this ancient Indo-Aryan ethnic
group—known as the Dard people (or Shin)—can still be found inhabiting
high-altitude settlements, such as the Gurez Valley in Jammu and Kashmir,
parts of Ladakh, and areas of Gilgit-Baltistan. Nihara: Nihara appears
alongside the Darada realm as an ancient, divine, or mythological territory
situated north of the Himalayas. In ancient cosmological geography (like
the Puranas and the Ramayana), these names refer to the remote,
trans-Himalayan realms.}}
They are directed to search among the forests of lodhra, padmaka, and
deodar (devadāru) trees, and to proceed to Soma’s āśrama, revered by gods
and gandharvas. From there, they are to reach the great-peaked Mount Kāla
(identified with the Pir Chinasi Range). Aſter crossing this range, Sugrīva
instructs them to proceed to Mount Sudarśana. References in texts such as
the Dirgha Āgama, the Abhidharmakośa, indicates a city named Sudarśana on
Mount Sumeru suggesting that Sudarśana Giri may correspond to the Sumeru.
Taitiriya Aranyaka (1.31) also refers to Sudharshana, Krauncha and Mainaka
mountains.
>From Sudarśana, the expedition is directed toward Mount Kailāśa and
Alakapuri, the abode of Kubera. They are then to proceed to Krauncha and
Maināka mountains. The Mahabharata (Sabha Parva) places Maināka near Lake
Bindusarovara to the north of Kailāśa and the 34 Ramayana refers to this
lake as Vaikhanasa Sara. Based on this, Krauncha may be idenfied with Lunpo
Gangri peak, while Maināka may correspond to the Kamet peak in the Zanskar
range, with nearby Vasudhara Tal idenfied with Bindusarovara or Vaikhanasa
Sara.
>From Maināka, Sugrīva directs the party toward Uttara Kuru, situated north
of the Śailodā River (identified with the Neelum River), and onward to Somagiri,
identified with K2 in Baltistan. He instructs them not to proceed beyond
Uttara Kuru. Thus, Sugrīva’s description of the northern direcon
culminates in the region of Uttara Kuru.
This detailed geographical account attributed to Sugriva reflects the
expanse of Indian civilisation during the Ramayana era. The western
boundary of Jambudvīpa (India) is described as extending up to the Hindu
Kush, beyond which regions across the Indus River and the Hindu Kush were
oſten characterized as mleccha lands. References to Aratiaka, Śaka, Bāhlika,
and Yavana provinces in the west suggest that these groups from the
Afghanistan region had already crossed the Indus and established their
kingdoms on the border of northwestern India during the Ramayana era.
References to the Yavanas are also interpreted as aligning with Greek
traditions that associate Dionysus (Bacchus) with early expeditions toward
the east up to Kabul in Afghanistan around 7400 BCE. Accordingly, it is
suggested that Indo-Greek groups may have been present in regions of
Afghanistan well before the Ramayana era.
The northern boundary is described as Uttara Kuru, while the southernmost
extent reaches the hills of southern Sri Lanka. The geographical horizon
also extends eastward to regions identified with Java, Sumatra, and Borneo,
as well as Udaya Giri (associated with Mount Kinabalu) in Sudarśana Dvīpa,
corresponding to parts of present-day Malaysia. These wide- ranging
geographical references suggest that Indian civilisational interactions had
already extended into Southeast Asia before the Ramayana era, and they help
explain why the story of the Ramayana became deeply embedded in the
cultural traditions of the region.
The Lankapuri of Ravana on the Equator
Latadeva’s Sūrya Siddhānta identifies Ujjain (Avanti) as the prime meridian
(0° longitude) and associates it with the point where this meridian
intersects the Tropic of Cancer. *The text further lists Meru of the Devas**
(oſten identified with Nanga Parvat),* Rohtak, Kurukshetra, and Lanka as
lying along this zero-degree meridian. Within this framework, Lanka is
conceived as the point where the equatorial line intersects the prime
meridian. Tradition attributes to Mayasura (6778 BCE) the early application
of spherical trigonometry to astronomical observations. It appears that a
small community identified with the Asuras or Rakshasas settled in Sri Lanka
following a decisive conflict between the Devas and Asuras during the Vedic
period, while the Simhalas are believed to have migrated there from western
India around 7000–6500 BCE. Observers in southern Sri Lanka, positioned
near the equatorial zone, could have noted the near-symmetrical visibility
of northern and southern stars. Using
35
a gnomon, they may also have observed occasions when the Sun stood directly
overhead, producing no shadow at noon.
>From such observations, they conceptualized key astronomical reference
lines: the Tropic of Cancer aligned with Ujjain, and an equatorial
reference associated with Lankapuri, identified the regions near
Pidurutalagala (Trikuta Parvata). In this interpretive tradition, the term
Lanka came to denote the intersection of the equator and the Ujjain
meridian.
Trikūṭa Śikhara and the Lankāpurī of Rāvaṇa The Sundara Kāṇḍa of the
amayana states that the city of Lankāpurī was situated on the summit of
Trikūṭa Parvata: “क टमशखरे लकां जितां …”, indicating that Hanumān beheld
Lanka established upon a mountain peak. This descripton aligns with later
historical accounts. The Persian scholar Al-Biruni notes: “According to the
Hindus, Lanka is the fortress of the demons. It is thirty yojanas above the
earth… It is on account of Lanka and the island of *Vadavāmukha (volcano)* that
the Hindus consider the south as foreboding evil.” The mountain
Pidurutalagala, the highest peak in Sri Lanka, rises to about 2524 meters
and lies within the central highlands. Traditions referring to Vadavāmukha
(a volcanic or fiery outlet) are also associated with this region. It is
therefore plausible, in this interpretive framework, to identify Trikūṭa
Śikhara with Pidurutalagala.
According to traditional accounts, the architect Viśvakarmā constructed the
city of Lanka, which was occupied by the Rākṣasas or Asuras. If we adopt a
yojana length of approximately 128.7 meters for the Rāmāyaṇa period, the
statement that Lanka stood thirty yojanas above the earth corresponds to
roughly 3,861 meters. This may not represent absolute elevation but rather
the ascent from the foothills to the fortified summit, suggesting a route of
about 3.8 km leading to the city. The Ramayana further describes the palace
of Rāvaṇa as measuring one yojana in length (≈128.7 m) and half a yojana in
breadth (≈64.5 m): “अधा यिन षवतीणाम् आयतम् यिनम् हह तत् …”. Lanka in the
Nairṛta (South-West) Direction The Ramayana frequently refers to the
Rākṣasas as Nairṛtas, meaning those dwelling in the south-west direction.
>From the perspective of northern cities such as Ayodhya and Prayagraj, the
region of Sri Lanka indeed lies toward the south or south-west, depending
on the route considered.
Geological studies suggest that prior to 6000 BCE, Sri Lanka was not an
island but connected to the Indian mainland. In such a settng, the location
of Lanka would have been accessible along a southward or south-westerly
trajectory from the Indo-Gangetic plains. 36 Thus, the esignation
Nairṛta in the
Ramayana can be understood within the historical geography of Sri Lanka
prior to 6000 BCE, referring to a south-western direction associated with
the region before Sri Lanka became an island .
Hanumān I of the Vedic Era and Hanumān II of the Rāmāyaṇa Era In the
Ramayana, Hanumān, Sugrīva, Vāli, Aṅgada, Nala, and Nīla are collecvely
referred to as Kapis. In the Kiṣkindhā Kāṇḍa, Jāmbavān recounts the legend
of an earlier Hanumān (Hanumān I). According to this tradition, his mother,
Puñjikasthalā—also known as Añjanā— was the daughter of Kuñjara, a king of
the Kapis or Vānaras. Vāyu, a descendant of the Ādityas, united with
Añjanā, resulting in the birth of Hanumān on the full moon of Caitra. Thus,
Hanumān I is described as the aurasa (biological son) of Vāyu (Pavana) and
the kṣetraja (social or legal son) of Kesarī.
Jāmbavān further indicates that Kesarī was a contemporary of
Garuḍa, the son of Kaśyapa Prajāpati and Vinatā. Within this chronological
framework, Hanumān I is placed around 11200–11100 BCE, while a later
Hanumān (Hanumān II) belongs to he Rāmāyaṇa era (5677– 5577 BCE). This
distinction explains why Jāmbavān narrates the historical account of
Hanumān’s birth to Hanumān II.
Regional traditions reflect this duality. Sites in Karnataka associate
Hanumān’s birth with Anjaneyadri Hill near Hampi, while traditions in
Andhra Pradesh identify Anjanadri in the Tirumala hills as his birthplace.
Within this framework, both traditions can be explained:
Hanumān I is linked to Tirumala, while Hanumān II is associated with
Kiṣkindhā. Notably, Makaradhwaja was the son of Hanumān I whereas Hanumān
II was a Brahmachari (celibate). Vṛṣākapi, one of the eleven Rudras is
regarded as the progenitor of the Kapi lineage. In Vedic (Chhandas)
Sanskrit, the term Kapi did not originally denote a monkey; its later
association with Vānara (monkey) developed in classical (Laukika) Sanskrit.
It is therefore plausible that Kuñjara, Añjanā’s father, ruled a community
descended from this Kapi lineage, and that Kesarī also belonged to this
Kapi clan. This gave rise to a Kapi community in Kiṣkindhā. Jain sources
indicate that Kapi rulers bore a monkey emblem on their banners, while the
Jain versions of
37
the Ramayana portray Hanumān, Sugrīva, and others as human figures ather
than literal monkeys.
It is noteworthy that Hanumān is portrayed as a master of the Vedas and
Vedāṅgas, parcularly grammar (Vyākaraṇa). Rama remarks to Lakṣmaṇa
(4.3.29): नूनं याकरणं क नम् अनेन बह धा तम्। बह याहरता अनेन न ककंथचत् अप शज
दतम्॥ “Surely, he has thoroughly mastered grammar; though he speaks at
length, not a single word is improperly uttered.” Jāmbavān I of the Vedic
Era and Jāmbavān I of the Rāmāyaṇa Era According to Purāṇic accounts,
Jāmbavān I was the son of Brahmā and the younger brother of Himavān,
placing him around 11180 BCE. He became the leader of the Rikśas, a disnct
lineage or community. The Ramayana records that his cave was constructed by
Maya. He is described as a contemporary of Devakiputra Krishna, to whom he
gave his daughter Jāmbavati in marriage. The Jāmbavān II of the Rāmāyaṇa
era (5677-5577 BCE) was also a king of the Rikśas and addressed as
Kapiśreṣṭha.
Traditionally, Kapis and Rikśas appear to have maintained close
associatons. Over time, however, the terms Kapi and Rikśa became identified
with “monkey” and “bear” respectively in later Sanskrit usage. Subsequent
redactors of the Ramayana may have amplified these associations to evoke
Adbhuta rasa (the sense of wonder), thereby transforming human identifies
into animal imagery. In a similar interpretive framework, figures such as
Jatāyu and Sampāti—described as descendants of Garuḍa—may represent human
lineages rather than vultures.
----------------------------------------SUBHAM------------------------------------
Concluded part 9 9626 K Rajaram IRS
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