_Still_ goin' through my mail queue, I came across an interesting discussion we had on TIPS end of August last year. The question was when Skinner first began using the term "negative reinforcement" in its current sense of a stimulus whose offset increases the response that precedes it, rather than as a synonym for punishment. The earliest we could find was that he used the term "negative reinforcer" in its current sense in _Science and Human Behavior_ in 1953 (p. 73). A related question is to ask when this use of the term become accepted in the psychological literature, especially in that treasurehouse of knowledge, the introductory psychology textbook. The answer seems to be: later than you think. The results of my library browse follow. The older use continued for at least 8 years after Skinner first redefined it. For example, Munn, in his _Psychology_ (1961) says "We use the term _positive reinforcement_ for rewarding and _negative reinforcement_ for punishing conditions (p. 377). However, by 1963 it was used in the modern sense in the specialized text _Complex human behaviour_ (Staats and Staats, 1963). They noted "There are other stimuli whose _removal_ strengthens behavior. These are called negative reinforcers" (p. 44). But for an introductory textbook, the earliest I could find a version of the new definition is Morgan and King (1966). They say, almost as an aside, "The response either may obtain something which the organism needs--positive reinforcement--or it may allow the learner to escape from a painful or fear-producing situation--negative reinforcement" (p. 88). With its reference to subjective states, this wouldn't be an acceptable definition today, but it does refer to the concept. However, they don't include the term in their chapter summary, nor in the their list of definitions at the end of their text. Others continued with the older version. Deese (1967), in his _General Psychology_, still states "Sometimes in order to distinguish between the more or less opposite effects of punishment and reward, we call one negative reinforcement (punishment) and the other positive reinforcement." This is now 14 years after Skinner. In the same year Hilgard and Atkinson (1967), in a section headed "Critical discussion: Brain stimulation and reinforcement", note that "stimulation of some areas of the brain stem [have] been found to serve as a _negative reinforcer_". The context indicates they are using this as a synonym for punishment. In their discussion of operant conditioning, they refer to bar-pressing to turn off shock as "escape conditioning" without using the term negative reinforcement. Negative reinforcement is not included in their glossary. I first found an approximation to a fully-adequate definition in Hill (1970). She (?) defines a reinforcer awkwardly by noting "The reward reinforces the tendency to repeat the rewarded response, so it is known technically as a _reinforcer_ (p. 75). Then, 31 pages later on p. 106, she says "If...the removal of a stimulus is reinforcing, the stimulus is called a _negative reinforcer_." A year later, Epstein and Shontz (1971) appear to have a fully satisfactory definition in their introductory text, _Psychology in progress_. They say "Behavior may also be modified by the introduction of negative reinforcement...Behavior followed by withdrawal of the aversive stimulus is increased" (p. 323). So my summary goes: First mention of negative reinforcement in its current sense in a textbook: Staats and Staats (1963). First mention in a textbook of introductory psychology: Morgan and King (1966). First fully adequate definition of negative reinforcement in an introductory textbook: Epstein and Shontz (1971). So it seems that this use of the term has become standard only within the last 30 years. If anyone has any earlier candidates, let us know. -Stephen References Epstein, W., & Shontz, F. (1971). Psychology in progress. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston. Hilgard , E., & Atkinson, r. (1967). Introduction to Psychology, 4th ed. New York: Harcourt, Brace, & World. Hill, W. (1970). Psychology: principles and problems. Philadelphia: Lippincott. Morgan, C., & King, R. (1966). Introduction to psychology, 3rd. ed. New York: McGraw-Hill. Munn, N. (1961> Psychology: the fundamentals of human adjustment., 4th ed. Boston: Houghton Millfin. Skinner, B.F.(1953). Science and human behavior. New York: Macmillan. Staats, A., & Staats, C. (1963). Complex human behavior. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston. ------------------------------------------------------------------------ Stephen Black, Ph.D. tel: (819) 822-9600 ext 2470 Department of Psychology fax: (819) 822-9661 Bishop's University e-mail: [EMAIL PROTECTED] Lennoxville, QC J1M 1Z7 Canada Department web page at http://www.ubishops.ca/ccc/div/soc/psy Check out TIPS listserv for teachers of psychology at: http://www.frostburg.edu/dept/psyc/southerly/tips/ ------------------------------------------------------------------------
