Deflation Fusion Draft #22, Part 1
PURPOSE
It is intended here to advance potential mechanisms underlying the
production of cold fusion and low energy nuclear reactions (LENR).
The possible existence of such mechanisms suggests new experiments
and improved techniques that may lead to a better understanding of
some of the anomalous behavior of these reactions, like unusual
branching ratios. It is also intended to derive some engineering
principles to utilize the mechanisms, and to provide some sample
device designs to demonstrate those principles.
ELECTRON SCREENING IN FUSION REACTIONS
The term “electron screening” when applied to fusion reactions
typically has two meanings.
One type of electron screening is the effect of the distribution of
charge in the electron wave functions of orbital electrons between
two hydrogen nuclei. The charge of a single orbital electron is
spread over a large volume, compared to nuclear distances, thus this
screening is very tenuous. The electron screening in a hydrogen
molecule actually thins out if the two nuclei are brought closer
together than their average separation distance, thus increasing
their mutual repulsion, and restoring the molecular shape. This
orbital electron screening requires long tunneling distances of the
hydrogen nucleus to achieve fusion, due to the large size of the
orbital in comparison to the nucleus.
Another kind of electron screening can occur when most of the wave
function of one or two free electrons gets between two hydrogen
nuclei. This can only happen if the screening electron de Broglie
wavelength is small, therefor the momentum and thus energy of the
screening electron is high, well over 2000 eV. This kind of electron
screening happens with great frequency only in very hot dense
environments.
Electron screening fusion reactions can be called electron catalyzed
fusion. Proposed here is a third kind of electron catalyzed fusion,
called deflation fusion. It is not an electron screening reaction.
It is fusion occurring as the result of a multi-body quantum wave
function collapse simultaneously involving electron(s) and hydrogen
nuclei, especially deuterons. Wave function collapse is a term which
has meaning depending on the quantum interpretation invoked.
Regardless of interpretation, as applied here, it is a very real
phenomenon. Consider the electron capture reaction. An electron
with a wave function covering a volume thousands of times that of a
nucleus suddenly collapses to become part of the nucleus when the
electron capture reaction occurs. Similarly, in the photoelectric
effect, a photon from across the universe, having a wave function of
very large size, can collapse its entire energy and momentum onto one
tiny electron on one atom in order to eject it from its orbital. An
electron on one side of a Josephson junction has a wave function that
initially extends to the other side of the junction with only a small
(volume integral) probability. Yet, depending on the width of the
junction and the potential across the junction, once the electron
tunnels across, it builds a newly centered (center of mass) wave
function having a small probability of being where it was on the
other side. These are three examples of wave function collapse, where
a quantum wave function can suddenly change both location and locus
probability distribution dramatically. Such quantum wave function
collapse can happen and indeed happens when it is energetically
favorable for either electrons or nuclei.
Typically in deflation fusion the wave functions of an electron and
two hydrogen nuclei momentarily collapse into a small volume, their
centers of mass being co-located, to create an intermediate state.
Weak and/or strong nuclear reactions may occur in this intermediate
state. This process differs from an electron screening process,
where the screening occurs prior to tunneling, and does not involve
an electron in the nucleus. A key ingredient to making deflation
fusion occur is stressing the electron wave function so as to make
its collapse with two nearby nuclei energetically favorable. Another
key ingredient is creating a configuration in which it is more
energetically favorable for two nuclei to tunnel to an electron, or a
nucleus to tunnel to a nucleus-electron pair in close proximity,
than for the electron to tunnel toward one of the nuclei.
TWO BODY WAVE FUNCTION COLLAPSE
An electron wave function collapse upon a single nucleus, followed
by reverse tunneling, is much more likely than the 3 body events
discussed above, but it would be an unnoticed event, an event without
any "ash" or consequences. When the reverse tunneling occurs, the
final state is identical to the initial state. Neutron creation is
energetically not favored from the two body event, because a neutron
has more energy than an electron plus a proton, and also because
neutron creation is a weak force interaction. A weak force
interaction is improbable, even if an energetic neutrino or energetic
nucleus supplies the energy, because weak reactions require a long
exposure time. Typically tunneling is a two way possibility. All
else being equal, the smaller the probability of a "tunneled to"
volume, the less apparent time available in that small volume state.
Still, the apparent time in even a very small probability state is
finite, and thus interactions, like strong or weak force
interactions, other tunneling, etc., are made possible from that
state, and their probabilities depend on the apparent percentage of
time in that state. This is how electron capture happens, which is
energetically favored in some nuclei, but not protium or deuterium
nuclei. Note that, for the sake of simplicity, tritium will not be
mentioned here except to note that it is essential to eventually test
any effective cold fusion cell type with a 50-50 deuterium-tritium mix.
Some quantum interpretations see the electron as a point particle and
its quantum waveform as in effect a probability distribution for its
whereabouts. More accepted interpretations see the quantum waveform
as merely a potentiality of particle existence in a given volume,
without actual existence unless a measurement is performed. This
latter view appears to the author to be wrong at least to the extent
portions of the quantum waveform, any selected volume of the electron
quantum waveform that is, exerts force as if there were partial
charge located in that volume, and the proportion of effective charge
in that volume corresponds to the electron occupation probability for
that volume. This apparent partial waveform charge accounts for
location of the nucleus at the "center of charge" of an atom,
dislocation of the center of charge in an electric field, the
converse effect, i.e. the piezoelectric effect, and electron
screening in hydrogen molecules.
A momentary state exists periodically for hydrogen nuclei and nearby
electrons in which a single small wave function exists for that state
and the nucleus plus electron can act as single small intermediate
state particle. (This state may be viewed alternatively under some
interpretations as a coexisting state, a partial existence
potentiality, or a state which manifests on observation with some
finite probability. ) Call this small wave function state a
deflated hydrogen state. That state, or particle, formed some times
under observation and wave function collapse, is not a neutron, not
a di-neutron, not a hydrino, not a hydrex,1 and not a protoneutron
as in the Mitchell Jones theory as discussed first on the newslist
sci.physics.fusion. The deflated hydrogen state differs from the
above listed particle concepts in that it represents a partial form
of existence of the involved electron-hydrogen nucleus pair. The
deflated hydrogen state (at least upon observation) exits for time
intervals in the attosecond range, but it is repeated at a high
apparent rate. Depending on the strength of the bond or resonance of
the deflated hydrogen state, this momentarily bound state may be an
intermediate state preceding deflation fusion. In other words, a
three body wave function collapse may consist of a multistage
process, a two body collapse to a deflated hydrogen state, possibly
followed by some very small attosecond order duration of motion of
the neutral charge deflated hydrogen, followed by tunneling of the
intermediate state particle to a second nucleus, or vice versa, or
even tunneling to or with a lattice nucleus. Cold fusion engineering
then consists of designing ways to increase the probability of and
thus the proportion of existence of the deflated state hydrogen, and
thus the probability of deflation fusion, or of increasing the
probability of multi-body wave function collapse.
Now that the deflated hydrogen state has been defined, it is easy to
see the ideal configuration to engineer is one in which tunneling
tends to occur in the deflated state, or tunneling to a site
momentarily occupied by a deflated state hydrogen tends to occur.
This is cold fusion.
It is not known the strength of the bond of the deflated hydrogen
state, or its distribution, and thus the respective probabilities of
one stage or two stage multi-body wave function collapse. It is
likely the bond is very weak and variable because the deflated
hydrogen state occurs extremely frequently and periodically. It
might be expected the deflated state happens with a probability being
roughly equal to the probability of the electron being in or highly
proximal to the hydrogen nucleus. The probability may in fact have
been observed to be much higher than this though. The deflated
hydrogen state may indeed provide an explanation for the missing
proton problem. 2 3 The probability of the deflated hydrogen state in
water and other compounds may be as high as 0.25. When viewed in
attosecond time frames, water is H1.5O, not H2O.
The electron hops into and out of, or otherwise coexists in, the
deflated hydrogen state without any change in energy or apparent
radiation. One way to visualize this state is that it is a partial
state of the involved electron which is not observed unless wave
function collapse occurs which precipitates a strong force reaction
fusion event with another nucleus, or interaction occurs with a
photon or particle, one possibly used to sense the state, or at least
lack of interaction from the state.
Another way to view the deflated state is it is a brief state which
is both energetically permitted and then ended by zero point field
interaction. As with the orbital itself, there is thus no resultant
radiation due to electron acceleration. Heisenberg is not violated
because the time intervals are so brief.
An electron easily tunnels back and forth between an orbital state,
or partial orbital state, and a deflated hydrogen state, i.e.
coexists in those states, because it is energetically possible. In
normal circumstances the deflated hydrogen state is not observed
because it is so brief, though with new technology it may be observed
because the deflated hydrogen state is neutral, thus the hydrogen
nucleus can in effect momentarily disappear periodically, or with
some probability, to a photon, neutron, or electron beam. There is
nothing that traps the electron in the nucleus in the deflated
hydrogen state because the potential energy change due to charge
location is offset by the uncertainty energy, in essence the energy
required to confine the electron to a small volume, zero point
energy. However, this energy balance changes if deflation fusion
ensues, because there are then two positive charges in the nucleus,
and the electron must inflate its way out of this fused nucleus by
accumulating zero point energy, and it radiates in the process.
The rest of this paper, when discussing hydrogen fusion, views multi-
body tunneling as a single event or process because a two stage
deflation fusion process in which a deflated hydrogen is involved is
essentially indistinguishable in outcome from a single stage multi-
body collapse. Both can occur in attosecond range time intervals.
WHY KINETIC FUSION IS UNAFFECTED
The very brief existence of the deflated state explains why
kinetically induced fusion can not make use of the Coulomb barrier
being down , because there is insufficient time for a motional
approach of two nuclei before the barrier is back up. Even at an
energy of 2000 eV the proton has a velocity of 6x105 m/s, thus
travels only 6x10-13 m per attosecond. This is not enough to affect
to a practical degree the tunneling rate for hot fusion.
ELECTRON FUGACITY
Much discussion has occurred in the cold fusion (CF) and low energy
nuclear reaction (LENR) literature regarding the importance of
achieving high D/Pd atomic ratios, i.e. high hydrogen loading in CF
cathodes, and thus high hydrogen fugacity. Fugacity is similar to
pressure in that it is a measure of the energy required to add an
additional particle to a system. 4
Much work in the cold fusion field has, from early on, focused on the
difficulty of achieving high hydrogen fugacity5 because lattice
imperfections exist, electrode metals fail, diffusion occurs into
cracks and occlusions, and other sources of hydrogen loss exist.
Some work has focused on the importance of superimposed electrostatic
fields in or on cathodes, specifically that of S. Szpak, P. A. Mosier-
Boss, F. E. Gordon.6 This work noted structural and morphological
changes in electrode structure, dendrite growth, etc., in the
presence of strong electrostatic fields.
Despite an intense focus on hydrogen fugacity, and some work related
to superimposed electrostatic fields, no work has focused on electron
fugacity. This is a complex area due to the quantum mechanical
requirement for degenerate electrons to occupy ever higher energetic
states once their density passes a critical value, and no conduction
electron is free to "move". 7
One aspect of achieving high loading coefficients is that conduction
band electrons, which are ionically bound to the adsorbed hydrogen in
the lattice, are bound to a specific location when the adsorbed
hydrogen reaches saturation and thus can no longer diffuse. In fact,
one means of measuring cathode loading is to measure cathode
conductivity. A key aspect of achieving high electron fugacity then,
when no other means is applied or even known to be of use, is to
achieve loading to the point no diffusion can occur. Cracked
electrodes, lattice imperfections, unsealed exposed surfaces, and
anything else that permits hydrogen diffusion leakage decreases
electron fugacity as well.
Electron fugacity at the surface of a metal conductor clearly can be
increased by increasing the magnitude of the negative potential of
the metal. This increase of negative potential is synonymous with an
increase in electron surface density. Free electrons migrate to the
surface of a metal conductor - to a point. When conduction bands
at the surface fill up, addition free electrons are forced to lower
levels. At very negative potentials, orbitals of surface atoms
deform out into the space beyond the normal surface. When complete
hydrogen saturation occurs in a loaded cathode, additional conduction
band electrons are forced to occupy locations within the volume of
the conductor. Therefore the conduction bands at the surface fill
up, pushing the excess conduction band electrons deeper into the metal.
If sufficient electron fugacity is achieved in a given volume of a
lattice, then the addition of more electrons results in a higher
energy state of the electrons, not a higher temperature of the
electron "gas". It is at this point fusion may possibly be
catalyzed by electron fugacity. Increased electron quantum state and
reduced wavelength assists electron catalysis of fusion. The common 3
body tunneling reaction probabilities are energetically increased:
D + e- + D ---> He + e- + energy
D + e- + D ---> T + p + e- + energy
D + e- + D ---> 3He + p + e- + energy
These reactions involve the simultaneous 2 body tunneling of an
electron and deuteron to the location of another deuteron, or vice
versa, i.e. a three body reaction. Similar reactions can involve
other isotope pairs or multiple isotope-electron reactions. When the
fugacity of both hydrogen and electrons reaches a critical point, the
addition of more energy to the lattice results in fusions. This is
an energy focusing effect. An increase in the group energy state,
i.e. group fugacity, results in a pressure outlet involving only a
few members.
Note that the eventual escape of the catalytic electron from the
newly fused nucleus reduces the resultant nuclear temperature. The
electron populated nucleus can radiate. The branching ratios from an
electron catalyzed reaction will differ from those of a kinetic
fusion reaction which does not involve a catalytic electron in the
initial bound state.
High surface electron fugacity of a cathode can be achieved by
increasing the negative potential of the cathode, and thus the
electrostatic field at the cathode surface. It can also be increased
in small locations by a bumpy or dendritic cathode surface.
An alternative way, or more importantly an incremental way, to
increase the electric field strength at an electrode surface is to
bounce a laser beam off of it at a low angle of deflection. Laser
stimulation of a very highly negative potential cathode surface may
work in a gas environment, provided the surface out gassing is
controlled by choice of a surface material with a low hydrogen
permeability and which sustains both a high hydrogen and high
electron fugacity by presenting an appropriately strong barrier to
diffusion. Such a surface can be fed adsorbed hydrogen via a proton
conducting backing like palladium. Laser stimulation of fusion on a
cathode surface in the presence of a magnetic field is well known and
is called the Letts Effect.8 9
SURFACE POTENTIAL
Surface potential at a conductor surface point P is defined here to
be with respect to the surface of some small volume (dx)3 of a
neutral matter, where there is no intervening conductive surface
surrounding P and separating P from the neutral matter. Neutral
matter is matter having an equal number of positive and negative
charges. Establishing and measuring potential in this context is
critical in achieving a desired or even known electron fugacity.
For this reason, conducting LENR experiments in Faraday Cages is
essential. The small volume of neutral matter that defines zero
potential can then be located within the Faraday cage metal itself.
It should be sufficient to use a grounded Faraday cage as ground
potential, i.e. potential zero, to achieve the electron fugacity
goals for various experiments described below.
BRANCHING RATIOS
If sufficient electron and deuteron fugacity is achieved the
probability of a three body electron tunneling reaction is
energetically increased. When the fugacity of both hydrogen and
electrons reaches a critical point, addition of more energy to the
lattice results in fusions. This is an energy focusing effect. An
increase in the group energy state, i.e. group fugacities, results in
a pressure outlet involving wave function collapse of relatively few
members, resulting in deflation fusion. Let us examine how this
deflation fusion process might change branching ratios.
The following are standard hot fusion branching ratios:
D + D --> T(1.01 MeV) + p(3.03 MeV) (4.03 MeV, 50%)
D + D --> 3He(0.82 MeV) + n(2.45 MeV) (3.27 MeV, 50%)
D + D --> 4He( 76 keV) + gamma (23.8 MeV) (23.9 MeV, 1x10^-6)
The initial effect of an electron in a newly fused nucleus is to
reduce its potential energy in comparison to a hot fusion created
nucleus. The tunneling of two deuterons and an electron to a point
is the result of a wave function collapse. The amount of energy lost
in the wave function collapse is dependent on the size of the
combined intermediate result, which is a random variable.
From the electric potential energy Pe for separating an electron
from two deuterons we have:
Pe = k (-2q)(q)(1/r) = (2.88x10^-9 eV m) (1/r)
which we can rearrange to obtain r for a given potential energy,
r = (2.88x10^-9 eV m) (1/Pe)
and we have for 23.9 MeV:
r = (2.88x10^-9 eV m) (1/(23.9x10^6 eV))
r = 1.2x10^-16 m
which is about 10 times the diameter of a quark, and thus in the
realm of credibility. It is feasible for the wave function collapse
to initially consume all the available fusion energy.
If the three interacting particles collapse to a point, or even to
quark size, then all the 23.9 MeV available from ordinary hot fusion
(and more) is consumed. This is certainly an energetically favorable
tunneling reaction. Further, given that the collapsed intermediate
nucleus radius is variable in size, according to some probability
distribution, various total energy amounts are available per
reaction. We can also see that the neutron producing reaction, D + D
--> 3He + n, having the least energy available from the fusion
reaction (3.27 MeV), would necessarily be the least likely branch
path. Thus it is clear how the electron catalyzed deflation fusion
produces an initially cool nucleus, and favors the reaction D + D -->
He. However, the nucleus can't stay cool. The confined electron
gains energy from the vacuum, and from its immediate neighbors, which
also gain zero point energy due to the small nucleus size.10 The
electron gains zero point energy until it has sufficient energy to
tunnel out, and possibly take some kinetic energy with it also. In
the process of the electron gaining energy, while it is confined with
the nucleus hadrons and experiencing accelerations within the
energetic nucleus, the nucleus can be expected to radiate. This is
the bulk of the energy of cold fusion, of electron catalyzed
deflation fusion - protracted low energy gammas and beta radiation.
The most likely product is helium, and the second most likely
product, though comparatively rare, is tritium. The least likely
products are helium-3 and neutrons, though trace amounts of these
products are produced.
ULTRA-HEAVY HYDROGEN ISOTOPES
The existence of hydrogen-4 to hydrogen-7 and possibly beyond, as
well as helium-5 to helium-8, may shed some light on the intermediate
states of some LENR processes.11 A deflation fusion of multiple
electrons and two deuterons or more in a loaded lattice, possibly
followed by a weak reaction, could produce these ultra-heavy hydrogen
or helium nuclei as an intermediary state. The ability to shed four
neutrons or more from a heavy hydrogen or helium intermediate state
implies the ability of a quad-neutron to tunnel to a heavy nucleus in
the lattice. This could explain various observed jumps of four in
nucleon number of lattice elements in LENR experiments. Further, a
deflated hydrogen state of an ultra heavy hydrogen may look like a
clump of neutrons to the lattice atoms, and thus easily tunnel long
distances to them because the tunneling is energetically neutral
electrostatically speaking, and favorable magnetically.
THE BACK SIDE CELL
The method of applying high electron fugacity to deuterium loaded
cathodes has the objective of creating an energy focusing effect,
forcing co-centered wave function collapse, resulting in deflation
fusion. The objective is to create simultaneously a high deuteron
fugacity and electron fugacity. Fugacity of a particle type in a
given environment is similar to pressure in that it is a measure of
the energy required to add one more such particle to that
environment. It is of interest that as electron density increases,
the fugacity of a given amount of loaded hydrogen decreases.
Increasing electron fugacity increases the loading feasible with a
given amount of electrolysis energy, though adding one particle of
each increases the fugacity of both.
The application of extreme fields to the back side of a loaded
cathode is one way to increase electron fugacity. That is to say a
cathode can be loaded electrolytically from one side, the electrolyte
side, and yet be a charged to millions of volts at the back side
surface. The back side surface can interface to a vacuum, hydrogen
gas, high pressure dry nitrogen, clear HV oil, glass, or any
convenient highly transparent and sufficiently insulating medium on
the high voltage back side of the cathode. Call this high voltage
side of the cathode the cathode back side. The back side is the
surface opposite the hydrogen loading surface. Call a cell having
such a two sided cathode a back side cell. Accomplishing this in a
practical manner requires formation of a surface layer on the cathode
back side surface which reduces the rate of hydrogen evolution from
the back side. Such a layer could be an insulating oxide layer thin
enough to support electron tunneling, but not excessive deuterium or
helium tunneling, or could be a low diffusion rate metal thin film,
like a gold or copper alloy.
A back side cell allows diffusion to occur through the cathode, the
hydrogen coming in the front side and out the back side. The
diffusion rate out the back side is controlled such that the hydrogen
fugacity is maintained at an adequate level, while the diffusion rate
is simultaneously maintained. Call this technique back side de-loading.
A high density of electrons at the cathode high voltage back side
surface and just beneath the back side surface increases both the
hydrogen final density and diffusion rate throughout the cathode,
especially if it is thin. It also increases the probability of wave
function collapse of surface deuterons due to Stark effect orbital
stressing due to high electric field conditions at the cathode back
side surface and immediate subsurface.
Application of a powerful magnetic field parallel to the cathode
vacuum surface incrementally stresses the deuteron orbitals there via
the Paschen-Back effect and the formation of Rydberg orbitals,
which, in addition to destabilizing electron waveforms and reducing
the discreteness of normal quantum effects, also increases the
probability of electrons locating within the volume of the nucleus
or experiencing simultaneous wave function collapse with and within
it. A strong laser beam nearly parallel to but striking the cathode
back side surface increases the above combined field effects
dramatically.
An alternative arrangement is to orient the powerful magnetic field
as normal to the cathode back side surface interface. In this case
the laser beam effects are diluted somewhat due to being normal to
the magnetic field, though the vector sum of the fields is still
enhanced.
A PROPOSED INITIAL EXPERIMENT
Shown in Figure 1 is an electron fugacity concept experiment,
suitable for amateur construction, based on a Szpak cell design.
A metal plate HV anode 1 is fully enclosed in encapsulating HV
insulation 3, an electrolyte submersible high voltage insulating
jacket, which extends across the electrolyte level 2. A voltage V0
is applied to the metal plate HV anode via the insulated HV anode
lead 12. A CR-39 detector 4 is adhered to the encapsulating
insulation.
A cathode coil 5 consists of a cathode wire wound around the CR-39
detector 4 and insulated ground electrode as a unit, and has a
potential V1 applied to it via the electrolysis cathode lead 11. A
good metal for the cathode wire is silver, because, with an
electroplated Pd coating, it can be expected to produce some
energetic particles even without high deuterium concentrations, i.e.
with ordinary water. Very pure (.9999 fine) silver wire is available
from jeweler's supplies and online presently for under $8 a foot.
12 High silver content thin gauge solid silver solder might
possibly work also.
The electrolysis anode 8 is maintained at a positive electrolysis
potential with respect to the electrolysis cathode lead 11 by a
floating DC power supply not shown. A voltage V2 is applied the the
electrolysis anode lead 10. The difference V2 - V1, is set by the
floating DC power supply to a voltage sufficient to obtain a good
loading current initially, and to sustain loading during live
operation. It may be useful to use a 99%+ pure small palladium ingot
or coin, available at most coin stores, for the anode.
A magnetic field 9 can be applied across the cell in an "into the
page" fashion in Figure 1. A laser beam can be applied to the wire
through the electrolyte. The laser beam incidence angle with respect
to the CR-39 surface can be adjusted so at least some will hit or
reflect toward the side of the wire closest to the CR-39 detector.
Laser leveling devices provide a cheap source of low power continuous
operating lasers. Unfortunately, high powered lasers may be
necessary to obtain any noticeable added effect.
The Szpak cell used an electrolyte comprised of 0.03 M PdCl2 and 0.3
M LiCl in D2O. It also worked using KCl instead of LiCl. It is
reasonable to expect NaCl will work in place of KCl. Instead of
purchasing PdCl2 it may be feasible to use a hydrochloric acid
electrolyte (HCl) buffered with table salt (NaCl). The source of
the Pd is then the anode itself. Electroplating of the silver
cathode wire sufficiently is then a process which may take two or
three weeks. It is extremely important to provide excellent
ventilation during electrolysis because both hydrogen, which is
explosive, and chlorine, which is extremely toxic, evolve. In some
circumstances this electrolysis might be best achieved out of doors,
using low voltage DC supply wires coming from indoors.
One method of building a floating DC power supply is to drive a car
alternator using a belt drive or dielectric drive shaft, and then
rectifying the output. The unit should be covered with a grounded
metal case and the supply wires should be highly insulated. A useful
type high voltage wire is that used in making neon signs. A much
more efficient and less noisy method, but probably more expensive
method, is to obtain a 120 V high voltage isolation transformer and
drive a highly insulated (for safety) but ordinary power supply. A
fail-safe mechanism should be provided to cut all power when access
to the experiment or power supply is attempted.
The high voltage supply providing the potential difference V1-V0 can
operate at very low current, at least in DC mode, and thus can be a
very safe power supply, .
The voltage V0 in Figure 1 is zero potential, as defined earlier.
The cell must be located in a grounded Faraday cage. One control
variation of the experiment is to make the cell cathode wire voltage
V1 highly positive, and thus the electrolysis electrode potential V2
slightly more positive, leaving V0 at ground. The experiment then
consists of comparing the control, which includes a positive cathode
wire, no magnet, and no laser, to a result with the full compliment
of electron orbital stressors.
Another variation is to make V1 ground and apply AC across V1-V0.
This experiment is in general not designed for back side de-loading,
but some may occur when there is an AC voltage applied across V1 -
V0. Use of AC avoids surface charge buildup on the CR-39 which
diminishes the field applied to the CR-39 side of the cathode wire.
The AC V1-V0 version of the experiment is considered the most likely
version to produce the most CR-39 tracks because it avoids charge
buildup on the CR-39, and provides some degree of back de-loading.
Other important variations of the experiment consist of changing the
orientation and position of the electrolysis anode, in combination
with variations in the potentials V0, V1, and V2 , both during the
initial plating phase, and the operation phase where high current is
used to generate nuclear activity in the cathode. Recent experiments
indicate a high intensity electrostatic field is important during
plating but not cell operation, at least in some configurations.13
The purpose of this experimentation is to determine the effects of
fields and electron fugacity on both the front and back sides of the
cathode during loading and during operational phases. It is of use
to place CR-39 detectors on both sides of the HV anode assembly for
this kind of experimentation (under the cathode wire in both
cases). There are three orientations of the electrolysis anode.
First is as shown in Figure 1, facing one side of the cathode
assembly. Here the difference between the two CR-39 is of interest.
Next, the anode can be placed in the plane of and adjacent to the
Metal HV plate. The effects on both CR-39 detectors should then be
the same. What is of interest in this configuration is (1)
differences along the width of the CR-39 detectors, and differences
between (2) V1 positive and V0 ground , (2) V1 negative and V0
ground , (3) V1 ground and V0 positive. Each of these configurations
produce differing fields and electron fugacities throughout the
cathode, both during co-deposition and during live runs. Lastly,
it may be of interest to place the electrolysis anode to the side of
the HV anode plate, but perpendicular to it, so as to increase the
electrolysis plate ground screening to one side of the cathode
assembly vs the other.
Another important variation of the experiment is to attach a second
cathode power lead to the free end of the cathode wire. For this
version of the experiment it is of interest to use thin high
resistance wire which can adsorb hydrogen, possibly palladium wire,
which is readily obtainable, though expensive.14 For use without co-
deposition titanium wire is a good choice due to its low
conductivity. To avoid overheating the wire and yet to obtain the
largest possible internal field, the power applied through the
cathode, which is independent of the other applied powers and the
source of which should be isolated from ground, should be pulsed AC
with a very low duty cycle.
There are many combinations of field orientations to test. There
are many more, essentially limitless, combinations of materials to test.
One electrolyte of possible interest is distilled water saturated
with pickling lime, CaO, available in powdered form from Walmart.
However, this electrolyte must be used with a high voltage AC
electrolysis potential V2 - V1, so cell operation becomes dangerous
unless it is used as an additive to other more conductive
electrolytes. The calcium is deposited when an electrode is in
anode state. An alternative experiment of possible interest is,
during the initial preparation and plating of the cathode, to
alternate plating time between the PdCl2 - NaCl bath and a CaO bath.
This will deposit alternating layers of Pd-CaO and Pd, both
codeposited with hydrogen. Another variation of possible interest
is adding a small amount of boric acid (available at local
pharmacies) to the PdCl2 - NaCl electrolyte, or to the CaO bath,
possibly creating a calcium borohydride, Ca(BH4), tunneling barrier
and/or tunneling target.
Ultimately, a practical device will likely have a gas mode back side,
or at least operate partially in gas mode. This experiment should
produce particle tracks in the CR-39, at least with the right wire
type and electrolyte, because the Szpak cell produced some CR-39
tracks with silver cathodes using H2O instead of D2O. If D2O is
available all the better. The interesting thing is comparison of
tracks for the live run to the control and to HV AC applied to create
the V1-V0 difference in potentials.
Horace Heffner
http://www.mtaonline.net/~hheffner/
