BACKGROUND
Jones Beene theorized that electron affinity might be used to
spontaneously transport electrons between electrodes of the right
kind in a gas modality.1
"take two electrodes and a working medium, and hydrogen is the only
working medium that fits into this concept very well (73 kj/mol)...
- such that one electrode has a much lower electron affinity than
does the H2 (zinc works well ~0) and the other has a much higher
(gold plated copper works here ~223). You need a source of energy to
convert - like focused sunlight onto the back side of the zinc. The
other electrode is finned and air-cooled. The zinc emitter can be a
Zn plated bimetal, so that there is already a small thermoelectric
effect."
This concept was explored by Jones Beene and this author on the
vortex-l news list through discussion of variations of the concept,
methods to practically develop the concept, possible relationship of
the concept to dry pile operation, and the possible tapping of zero
point energy.
OBJECTIVE
It is the objective here to document and further explore electron
affinity2 based charge transport as well as dry pile and other
related concepts.
DEFINITION OF SOME TERMS
Here "donor electrode", "electron donor", or simply "donor" refers
to a donor electrode and especially the donor electrode surface which
can spontaneously transfer electrons to transporter molecules upon
contact.
Here "acceptor surface", "acceptor electrode", or simply "acceptor"
refers to the acceptor electrode and especially the acceptor
electrode surface which can, upon contact, spontaneously accept an
electron from a transporter molecule having negative charge, leaving
it neutral.
"Transport" means the process which achieves movement of electrons
from a donor to an acceptor.
The term "electron transport molecule", "transporter molecule",
"electron transporter" or just "transporter" means a molecule of
intermediate electron affinity capable of, upon contact, in gas form,
obtaining an electron from the donor surface, and, upon subsequent
contact, donating the excess electron to the acceptor surface, thus
leaving the transporter neutral. The term transporter can also be
extended to mean multiple molecule types which, in a sequence of
steps, achieve the same final outcome of transporting an electron
from the donor to the acceptor across the gap between them.
The term "gap" here means the space containing a volume of gas
between a donor and acceptor and through which transport occurs.
The term "cell" here means a donor, gap, acceptor in sequence, or
multiple occurrences of donor, gap, acceptor in sequence and
electrically connected in series in some fashion, as well as any
containment envelope and connecting conductors.
DISCUSSION OF INITIAL POTENTIAL HURDLES
One problem may be the tendency for many of the possible electron
donor candidates to form hydrides, and thus decay and slough off in
powdered form and/or reduce the surface area available for donating,
as well as the electron affinity due to large numbers of hydrogen
atoms already adjacent to each potential donor. Phosphorous at above
277 deg. C may be a good transporter candidate - but that would take
a solar concentrator to drive it, which might still be OK. There
again, a problem might be the tendency of the donor metals to form
phosphides and thus reduce their effectiveness. An alloy would have
to be used for a donor metal and it might take a lot of research to
find just the right one. The transporter can be a compound molecule,
and that is probably the best choice. The best candidate molecule
would probably be a dipole, so steam, which can also exist at normal
temperatures if at less than atmospheric pressure, is probably right
up there in the top candidates. In fact, steam is well known for its
static electric effects around differing metals.3 Stainless steel
might make a good donor metal for a steam based electron transporter.
The gap between donor and acceptor surfaces should be made as small
as possible, possibly by using a fine dielectric powder as a
separator, or by using computer chip type construction techniques.
The smaller the gap the higher the current level that will be
supported, all else being constant.
Based solely on electron affinity, ignoring other problems, gold
looks ideal as an acceptor.
A choice of donor, transporter, and acceptor should also be
consistent with the electronegativity chart.4 In any event,
electronegativity considerations may be important if battery charging
is involved.
A significant problem is that an electron transport cell of this kind
is heat driven. The transport molecule must be driven kinetically
from the donor surface to the acceptor surface against an electric
field. The peak voltage the cell can produce, as well as its current
to voltage ratio, is determined by operating temperature of that gap,
and the field across it. The peak power is limited by the percentage
of transport particles having energies in the Boltzmann tail
sufficient to transport an electron across the potential difference
between the donor and acceptor.
There is a need to place numerous cells in series, because the
operating voltage of the gap is limited by the thermal energies of
the molecules, e.g. about 26 millivolts at 300 K. The series
achievement would likely have to engineered at a micro level, because
it would take about 1000 cells in series to generate 26 volts or so.
The main difficulty with achieving series operation is the fact it is
necessary to transition current from the receiver metal back to the
donor metal at each stage, i.e. to make electrical connections
between cells, so therefore, depending on choice of donor and
acceptor materials, it can be necessary to climb right back up the
energy hill again at the metal to metal interfaces, losing what was
gained. What remains in that case is some of the thermal energy that
kicked the electrons across the barrier in the first place, against
the operating potential of the cell, and which thus highly limits the
cell voltage and current. If some kind of energy extraction scheme
can be employed in the process of getting the electrons to transition
from the acceptor metal back to the donor metal through the return
circuit, then a lot more energy can be had. This trick can be
carried out using metals providing a gain at their interfaces due to
differences in work function.
The molecules that transport electrons successfully from donor to
acceptor reduce the thermal energy of both electrodes. They leave the
donor as fast particles, thus taking heat from the donor, and arrive
at the acceptor cold. This, by convection and conduction, ultimately
drives the temperature of the whole system down. The heat energy has
to be replaced by solar or other sources.
One possibility is to use energy derived from, say, battery charging,
to maintain a small potential bias across the gap between the donor
and acceptor electrodes. This then avoids the limits on charge
transport placed by the requirement to kinetically transport
electrons across the potential of the gap. In this way the energy
derived from the system is due to whatever energy can be derived from
the difference between the two electron affinities plus whatever can
be gained from the work function differences. In other words, any
energy coming out of this kind of biased gap system is then tied to
what use can be made of the resulting flow of electrons into the
acceptor metal, because no potential exists across the gap from which
to extract energy due to the current across the gap.
NEGATIVE ELECTRON AFFINITY
It is possible to use a negative electron affinity electron )NEA)
donor, such as aluminum nitride, and various doped semiconductors,
like diamond or sapphire. A material of possible interest is cesium
doped diamond, which has an electron affinity of about -0.7 eV.5 Of
special interest is the electron photo yield of hydrogen terminated
diamond films, which suggests the possibility of a dry pile type cell
which is directly light fueled.6 A wide variety of NEA materials
are very effective photo emitters. Combined with very narrow gaps,
this suggests the possibility of very efficient light to energy
conversion through use of NEA materials.
PULSED OPERATION
Numerous cells linked capacitively in series would make a good pulse
amplifier. A negative pulse hitting the first cell eliminates the
thermal bias required for electrons to be transported cross the cell
by the transporter molecules, and the net electron affinity of the
transaction adds to the negative voltage applied to the cell acceptor
electrode, which then transmits it through a capacitive link to the
next cell, thereby avoiding the metal to metal junction bias
otherwise required to link the cells conductively. Following the
pulse with a brief recovery time gives the cell donor electrode time
to reload some molecules with electrons. The capacitive interface
between acceptor at one level and donor at the next avoids the need
for work function considerations at the interface. The pulse method
also works even if capacitive linkage is not used, especially if gain
from work function differences is also present.
The donor electrode might be a slightly conductive plastic, or other
triboelectric donor material, which would thus also directly provide
the capacitive linkage. The trickle current though it would have to
be enough to recover for the next pulse. The electron donor -
transporter combination is still important if triboelectric effects
are used to achieve the donation because that is in fact an electron
affinity effect.
Getting the electron affinity benefit, which may in fact be a zero
point energy (ZPE) benefit, may require avoiding the metal-metal type
conversion in the return circuit. This can be done using pulsed mode
and capacitive linkage between cells.
SOME TRANSPORT CANDIDATES
Candidate electron transporter molecules might include "accumulator
oils", oils known to be capable of accumulating negative charge:
gasoline, kerosene, jet fuel, turpentine, as well as heating, diesel
and lubricating oils. 7
CO2 might be a candidate transporter molecule, and a CO2-steam mix
might be effective, with one being more effective acceptor, the other
a more effective donor, with gas born electron exchanges involved in
addition. The ideal transport mechanism might be a hybrid, with one
transporter (e.g. gasoline or CO2) accumulating charge from a donor
(e.g. plastic) by a triboelectric effect, and then transferring some
of that charge in gas form to a transporter (e.g. water) better able
to carry the charge to the acceptor (e.g. gold). This would give the
oil multiple roles as acceptor, transporter, and donor, but all
transporters have to play all three roles anyway.
Above 640 K mercury , having negligible electron affinity, makes a
good charge transporter if used with a negative electron affinity
donor. This suggests the use of a mercury transporter in a cell at
the focal point of a solar concentrator.
THE DRY PILE
Use of a low electron affinity donor electrode (e.g. zinc, nil
affinity) located opposite a high electron affinity electrode (e.g.
silver, affinity 128) using a thin charge transport bearing separator
medium (e.g. paper) which is sensitive to humidity (i.e. the charge
transporter water vapor) is a terrific alternative (and new?)
explanation of the dry pile.8
It is plausible that the dry pile is driven by thermal energy, not
electrolytic energy, and that the plates are not substantially
consumed in the process.
One dry pile, the Clarendon Dry Pile has been in operation more than
160 years.9
Let us see if an analysis can tell us anything of interest about it.
A 2 mm diameter sphere is driven between battery poles at a rate of 2
Hz. The voltage is not given, but for dry piles it is typically
"thousands" so assume it is 2000 V.
The potential of a sphere or radius r with charge Q is:
V = Q/(4 Pi e0 r)
so the capacitance C is
C = Q/V = 4 Pi e0 r
and for the 2 mm ball (assuming it is on an insulating rod) is
C = Q/V = 4 Pi e0 (2 mm) = 1.265x10^-13 F
The current i it carries is:
i = Q (2 /sec) = 4x10^-10 A
and its power P is:
P = i v = 8.9x10^-8 W
which is totally credible as coming from ambient heat. The Clarendon
cell could be a genuine Type II perpetual motion machine.
The total energy E produced by the machine in t=160 years is
E = P t = (8.9x10^-8 W) (160 y) = 449 J
Unfortunately this is too little to determine perpetual motion
without disassembling the machine or possibly doing nondestructive
testing to examine chemical changes.
Now, is it a practical source of power? It power surface area
density rho_area is:
rho_area = P/A = (8.9x10^-8 W)/(Pi (1cm)^2)) = 8.9x10^-4 W/m^2
That's about .89 mW for a pile 1 meter square, about 1/3 meter high.
Not very practical. That's a power density rho of
rho = rho_area/(.33 m) = 2.7 mW/m^3
However, if the cell were operated in pulsed mode, with capacitance
separated acceptor and donor plates, an in a hot environment, using
engineered components, engineered based on the stated principles that
is, the energy output should be greater by orders of magnitude.
An ideal solar device would accept about 1000 W/m^2, while a thick
pile produces about a mW/m^2, so the performance would have to be
boosted 6 orders of magnitude to get a perfect solar cell, and at
that it would be about 33 cm thick. Finding a very good
triboelectric charge exchange mechanism at the donor end of the cell
is key.
Even if the solar angle were out, the type II perpetual motion thing
is definitely a worthwhile possibility to pursue. An efficiency
boost of 5 orders of magnitude seems realistic. That would provide a
power density of 270 W/m^3. A house could be comfortably run on a 10
m^3 device, or 2.7 kW continuous, assuming batteries are used and
especially if other solar measures are used too. That's a box buried
in the back yard which is about 1 meter square and 10 meters long.
Spare solar hot water or solar or wind power driving a heat exchanger
could be used to help keep it hot. Or..., if you really want to
drive patent examiners crazy, and live in the south, just run it off
of ambient heat.
THE PULSED PILE CONCEPT
Figure 1 illustrates the pulsed pile concept. When a negative pulse
is applied to the negative end of the pile at V1, it permits electron
charge transporters in the first gap to transition to the acceptor
across the first gap. The difference in electron affinities
amplifies the pulse, which is carried forward to the next donor
electrode through the dielectric separator. This pulse amplification
continues through the cell until the current at V2 is driven at a
high voltage dependent primarily on the difference between electron
affinities of the donor and acceptor electrodes, but multiplied by
the number of transport gaps.
The donor and acceptor electrode can be separated by use of a
dielectric nano-powder.
The dielectric material "==" used for the capacitive linkage needs to
have a leakage current sufficient to reset the potential values
between pulse cycles.
Another variation is to drive a pulsed pile by AC, with a transformer
primary in the circuit. This would result in imbalanced current and
voltages on alternate half-cycles. Twin primary coils on the
transformer can each be driven in alternate half-cycles by a pair of
pulsed piles operated in power generating mode on alternate half-
cycles in order to give a balanced magnetic load on the transformer.
Note that the leakage current on the reset half-phase restores heat
to the cell.
THE CASIMIR FORCE AND ZPE TAPPING
When a ZPE tapping electron transport molecule takes on an extra
electron it creates a large orbital, i.e. it expands the size of the
molecule. This creates an increased Casimir force between the
transporter molecule and the donor surface. The low electron
affinity plus thermal action allows the donor surface to overcome the
Casimir force of the expanded transport molecule. This reduces the
heat of the donor surface. However, free energy in the form of ZPE
fueled orbital expansion also helps the transport molecule break the
increased Casimir force bond.10
When the electron transport molecule arrives at the acceptor surface,
it is more strongly attracted to that surface than the donor surface,
due to the high electron affinity of the acceptor surface. However,
due to its large size, the charged transporter is also attracted by a
large Casimir force. The result is that the transporter increases
both the thermal energy and electrical energy of the acceptor
electrode upon impact. After the discharge of the transported
electron, the size of the remaining transporter molecule is reduced.
Its Casimir force with the acceptor surface is reduced. It takes away
some of the heat it brought to the acceptor, but not as much as it
donated when it arrived. So, the net effect is the ability to
achieve a higher electrical potential plus excess heat at the donor
electrode due to the Casimir force asymmetries in the process.
Summarizing: The transporter arrives small at the donor and leaves
fat, but the Casimir force is overcome by donor heat plus the
negative electron affinity of the donor plus ZPE atomic expansion
energy. The transporter arrives fat at the acceptor but leaves small,
thus gaining back the Casimir force energy lost at the donor site,
plus the differential electron affinity energy plus the atomic
expansion energy acquired at the donor surface. The net effect is
excess electrical and thermal energy.
If electronation of the transport molecule by electron tunneling at a
distance can be achieved at the donor surface, then it avoids the
Casimir force altogether there. There is no appreciable Casimir force
at the donor surface, and no heat is lost to the departing transport
molecule other than the energy to supply the tunneled electron. The
transporter molecule still arrives fat at the acceptor but leaves
small, thus gaining net Casimir force energy, plus the differential
electron affinity attraction. The net effect is excess free
electrical and thermal energy due to the Casimir force asymmetry.
TRIBOELECTRIC MATERIALS
In addition to electron affinity, it may be of use to consider the
triboelectric effect. For example, it is surprising that lead is a
powerful triboelectric electron donor, as powerful as "cat fur".11
Positive charging, in strongest first order are: glass, quartz,
nylon, lead, aluminum. Steel is neutral, taking on no charge.
Negative charging, in strongest first order: ebonite, silicone
rubber, teflon, silicon, platinum, gold, brass, silver, sulfur,
nickel, copper.
This seems somewhat consistent with the electron affinity, because
lead is 35 and Al is 42, but the extreme triboelectric donating
ability of lead is surprising, and thus highly suspect.
It may be possible to add materials to ebonite or silicone rubber to
make them sufficiently conducting to work, but neither would be good
for high temperatures, nor would lead.
Though not a metal, silicon is listed as better than gold or platinum
as an electron acceptor. Silicon is way up the triboelectric scale
from gold, platinum and silver. A p-type doped silicon may be a
terrific acceptor candidate. This would rule out water, ammonia,
hydrogen, and many other things as transporters though. Something
fairly inert would have to be used as a transporter, possibly
silane. This would limit cell operating temperature to 420 deg. C.
This might cause problems on the donor end. No donor, no current.
It would be very interesting to measure the conductivity of lead-
silane-gold transport and zinc-silane-silver transport systems.
It appears a couple critical experimental thrusts are in order. One
is measuring conductivity across single thin gaps for a wide range of
donor-transporter-acceptor materials. It is important such
conductivity does not involve some kind of cascade ionization plasma
formation but maybe that too needs some thinking.
A second tier, given the identified good conductivity donor-
transporter-acceptor triplets, is to look at their power generation
capabilities, especially in stacked pulsed mode operation.
SOME TRANSPORT MEDIA COMBINATIONS
Hydrogen mixed with water vapor may be a powerful transport medium.
This mix would also form hydrogen peroxide, H3O+ and OH- in gas mode,
by disassociation, a famous type II mechanism. The differing
electron affinities for gold and and lead could even help spawn
excess hydronium and hydroxyl ions, i.e. drive the
2 H2O ---> H3O+ + OH-
reaction rate, catalyze it. A pulse across such a gaseous medium is
going to drive OH- to the acceptor and H3O+ to the donor very fast
and thus possibly generate type II free energy from the follow-on
dissociation, plus ZPE free energy due to both molecules arriving at
the electrodes fat and departing thin, plus the pulse amplification
due to electron affinity. Quickly there is hydrogen peroxide and OH
in this gaseous mix. Then it is much easier energetically speaking
to electronate OH into OH- when it returns to the donor side. If the
gap is about the size of the mean free path, a substantial current
can be generated, sustained.
One reason H2 or OH or any XH or XY dipole molecule should make a
good transporter, provided its electron exchanges with the donor and
acceptor work, is its size would probably change more than any larger
molecules when electronated or de-electronated.
A problem with hydrogen is that any donor materials, especially
negative electron affinity materials, BN for example, actually bond
to hydrogen. This is not good because it reduces the ability of
hydrogen to escape the donor. Further, the bonded hydrogen on the
donor surface then presents an electroneutral face to hydrogen in the
gas.
The main problems with hydrogen is it is highly reactive and it is
very difficult to keep contained. Another is there is no evidence
of devices existing in which it works, while it appears there is
evidence a zinc-water/paper-silver system in the form of a dry pile
does indeed work, even using the huge gap represented by the
thickness of a piece of paper.
It would be truly incredible to design a gadget that could run a home
for hundreds of years like the dry pile can. That actually seems
possible now.
THE METAL-METAL INTERFACE
The numbers to use evaluate potential drops at metal-metal junctions
are electron work functions. Table 1 shows selected acceptor
candidates. Table 2 shows selected donor candidates.
El. Wk.F. Elec.AFF.
Pt 5.65 205
Au 5.1 223
Cu 4.65 119
Ag 4.26 126
Sb 4.55 101
Table 1 - Selected acceptor candidate
work functions and affinities
El. Wk.F. Elec.AFF.
Zn 4.33 0
Pb 4.25 35
Ti 4.33 8
Al 4.28 42
Fe 4.5 15
Mo 4.6 72
Mn 4.1 0
Co 5.0 64
Table 2 - Selected donor candidate
work functions and affinities
From Tables 1 and 2 it is immediately clear why silver, with its
low work function, plus high conductivity, was useful in the Dry
Pile. The objective then is to find a donor with a work function
higher than the acceptor. Obvious candidates for donors are Zn, Ti,
Fe, Mo, and Co. Various kinds of stainless steel might make
feasible donor candidates. Interestingly, the Zn-Ag combination just
makes the cut, though the fact zinc is a hole conductor should still
make for a boundary problem. Lead is just barely out of the
running. It may be possible to find alloys of either Pb or Zn that
would make for a viable combination. Ti, Al, and Fe, all adsorb
hydrogen and form oxides, so some work is required to find compatible
transporters for them.
Zinc is a hole conductor. It acts like a p-type semiconductor at a
junction with electron conductors, which then act like n-type
conductors. The Zn-acceptor metal-metal interface thus should form a
depletion region and thus a barrier potential. See Figure 2. There
are plus charges on the n-region side and minus charges on the p-
region zinc side of the barrier. Electrons have a fight uphill
energy-wise going from the n-type conductor to the p-type zinc.
It is clear that, provided the electron affinity model describes the
operation of the dry pile, that it may not be ideally engineered.
Depending on materials used, the metal-to-metal interface can lose
energy gained in the electron transport. This can be overcome by
using a dielectric between the acceptor metal and the upstream donor,
and operating in pulsed mode. The leakage current of the dielectric
then must be engineered such that the system recovers prior to the
next pulse.
One problem is cost of the gold, platinum, or silver used for the
electron acceptor. This can be avoided by plating or deposition the
acceptor metal on both sides of any metal foil, and then depositing
on top of that the donor material on one side of that foil as the
donor side of the foil. Energy lost at one metal-metal interface to
the foil is then gained in the other. All that is needed then is a
means of separating the multilayer foils to make the gaps so they can
be stacked into a pile. These gaps can be formed by coating one side
of the foil with a porous dielectric separating material or closely
spaced powder granules sized to achieve the desired gap width.
GAP SIZE, ZPE, AND PERFORMANCE
The ZPE mechanisms suggested occur between the transport molecule and
the donor and acceptor surfaces. These are the only places achieving
a sub-nanometer spacing which is important. It is only useful to
make the gap itself roughly as small as the transporter mean free
path. If water vapor is used as a transporter at room temperature
then pressure is on the order of 1/10 atmosphere, and the mean free
path is on the order a micron.12 Even if a one atmosphere H2 plus
H2O gas mix is used, the gap need only be about 100 nm, a tenth of a
micron. This is not a big deal with today's technology. The dry
pile used paper separators to create an approximately 10^-4 m gap. A
100 nm gap is 10^-7 m, which provides a factor of 10^5 improvement.
And then there is the idea of using the pile for pulse amplification,
which might provide even more improvement, depending on the final
choice of materials and operational details.
What performance ultimately boils down to is whether the electron
affinity concept can be made to work at all, i.e. actual charge
transfers obtained at both donor and acceptor surfaces with some
useful frequency, and to some extent whether the concept has any
applicability at all to the dry pile operation. It should be
possible for an amateur to test this using a DC pulse train through a
simple lead-transporter-gold cell, and zinc-transporter-silver cell,
using various gasses as electron transporters, including steam,
hydrogen, a steam-hydrogen mix, gasoline vapor, gasoline vapor steam
mix, etc. Coming up with clean electrode materials might be
difficult, but it is not an impossibility to come up with some basic
tests of the concept.
MAXIMUM FEASIBLE CURRENT CALCULATION
Here is a maximum feasible current calculation using hydrogen as
charge transporter at room temperature, to demonstrate the robust
possibilities.
Assumptions:
Mean free path: 8x10^-8 m
Collisions per second per molecule: 10^10/sec
Wall-wall transfers/(second-molecule): 5x10^9
Density: 9 g/m^3
Gap width: 10^-7 m
Gap Area: 1 cm^2 = 10^-4 m^2
Computations:
Gap volume: (10^-7 m)(10^-4 M^2) = 10^-11 m^3
Hydrogen mass in gap = (10^-11 m^3)(9 g/m^3) = 9x10^-11 g
Molecules in gap = (9x10^-11 g)(6.022x10^23 molecules/mole)/(2 g/
mol)
= 2.7x10^13 molecules
Transfers/second = (5x10^9 trans/s-molecules)(2.7x10^13 molecules)
= 1.35x10^23 trans/sec
Max amps = (1.35x10^23 electrons/sec)(6.24 electrons/coul) =
2.2x10^4 amps
So the maximum feasible current density is 21 kA per cm^2 of
electrode area. If 1 in 21,000 electrode-to-electrode bounces
produces an electron transfer, we have a about a 1 amp/cm^2 current
density, which is just about right for electrolysis. This is robust.
AN APPLICATION
High conductivity dry piles could provide the DC bias to run an
electrolysis cell.13 See Figure 3. The piles DC1 and DC2 are
oriented so as to provide the correct bias potential to electrolysis
cells M1 and M2. Additional current is supplied by AC pulses
supplied by the transformer alternately to M1 and M2. The
incremental voltage of pulses through M1 and M2 is such less than the
bias potential required for the cells M1 and M2, thus no
rectification is required. For example, M1 and M2 might consist of
10 electrolysis cells in series, and DC1 and DC2 each provide a bias
potential of 8 volts. The transformer secondary is driven at 8
volts or more, giving an operational voltage of 1.6 volts per cell or
more. The transformer can be driven with a saw tooth waveform such
that the secondary output is a square wave. The useful forward
current through the piles DC1 and DC2 is thus obtained when the piles
are biased in the forward direction, thus eliminating the dependency
on the transporter molecule Boltzmann tail thermal energy to
transport electrons across the gap.
FIGURES
V2
o----------------
| |
ddddddddddddd |
================= |
aaaaaaaaaaaaa |
................. |
ddddddddddddd |
================= |
aaaaaaaaaaaaa Load
................. |
ddddddddddddd |
. .
. Repeated .
. .
aaaaaaaaaaaaa |
................. |
ddddddddddddd (+)
================= Pulsed Supply
aaaaaaaaaaaaa (-)
................. |
ddddddddddddd |
| |
o----------------
V1
Key:
== - Dielectric with leakage current
aa - Electron acceptor
dd - electron donor
.. - Charge transport gap
-| - Conductors
Figure. 1 - Pulsed Pile Diagram
electron donor
zzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzz
- - - - - - - - - Interface
+ + + + + + + + + Depletion Region
aaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaa
electron acceptor
^
| Gap
e-
Transport
electron donor
zzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzz
- - - - - - - - - Interface
+ + + + + + + + + Depletion Region
aaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaa
electron acceptor
Key:
zz - Zinc electrode
aa - Silver electrode
++ - Plus charge adjacent to depletion region
-- - Minus charge adjacent to depletion region
Figure 2 - Diagram of Dry Pile Mechanics
HF AC
V1 o--- ---o V2
| |
OOO
======= T1
OOOOOOO
| | |
i--> | | | <--i
-----M1------- | -------M2-----
| | |
| | |
o---(+)DC1(-)---o---(-)DC2(+)---o
Figure 3 - Method of superimposing AC signal
on dry pile DC potential
References located at:
http://www.mtaonline.net/~hheffner/DryPile.pdf
Horace Heffner
http://www.mtaonline.net/~hheffner/
