Cold Fusion Associated Nuclear Reactions
DEFLATION FUSION
Any theory that is to describe low energy nuclear reactions (LENR)
has to explain not only how the Coulomb barrier is breached, why high
energy particles and gammas are not seen from hydrogen fusion
reactions, and why the branching ratios are so skewed, but also why
almost no signature, including heat, is seen from heavy lattice
element transmutation. It appears unlikely that this can happen
without the presence of one or more catalytic electrons in the mix
which highly de-energize the fused nucleus. If a nucleus is not
highly energized to begin with, then there is no need to figure out
how high energy products are absorbed by the lattice. Such a tightly
bound state of hydrogen is defined as a deflated hydrogen state.
Deflation Fusion, a process whereby a ground state electron bound to
a hydrogen nucleus for attosecond durations, the initial deflated
state, makes breaking the Coulomb barrier feasible. This concept
was published as "Speculations Regarding the Nature of Cold
Fusion",Infinite Energy (I.E.), Volume 14, Issue 80, July/August
2008, and here:
http://www.mtaonline.net/%7Ehheffner/DeflationFusion2.pdf
Following is a further examination of the deflated state, the nature
of the initial deflated state, with a proposal of the possible role
of the proton's up quark in this state, and the possible role of
strange quarks in signature event creation.
THE UP QUARK AS DEFLATION NUCLEATOR
Even in the deuteron or triton, the proton has to be the focus, the
nucleator, of the electron deflated state, because it is the only
hadron with a positive charge. Beyond that, the up quark in the
proton, being the positive quark type in the proton and neutron,
singly or as a pair, must be the nucleator of the deflated state. The
following calculation is intended to be a rough estimate showing the
feasibility of at least a momentary up quark plus electron bound
state (U e)* within the proton, thus creating a (p e)*, (d e)* or (T
e)* state in the hydrogen nucleus in which the proton resides:
http://www.mtaonline.net/~hheffner/FusionUpQuark.pdf
This calculation demonstrates that, ironically, the more collapsed,
i.e. the smaller, the deflated portion of the electron wavefunction
leading to cold fusion, the higher the field densities and potential
for high energy vacuum exchanges, high mass virtual particle
formation, and weak interactions. Such weak interactions are not
expected from the catalyzing deflated hydrogen state, because it is
too brief. However, following tunneling with/to another nucleus, the
greatly de-energized resulting nucleus provides enough time for weak
reactions to occur. Such candidate reactions have been described in
Giancarlo Gazzoni's article on electroweak interactions as they apply
to cold fusion and half-life reductions:
http://philica.com/display_article.php?article_id=160
These reactions, or other electron mechanics, especially in a highly
de-energized nucleus, result in low energy gammas, which are
characteristic of cold fusion reactions.
STRANGE QUARKS
A wide variety of reactions are made possible by the frequent
presence of strange quark pairs, created periodically and momentarily
from the vacuum, inside the proton and possibly the neutron. See:
http://arxiv.org/PS_cache/arxiv/pdf/0904/0904.4009v2.pdf
The positive strange quark can act as a momentary nucleator for the
deflated state as well.
PROTON REACTIONS
Nuclear events need not only come from D or T nuclei, though these
have a higher probability due to the large cross section of the
strong force compared to the weak force reactions. There have been
hints of the possibility of "cold" proton reactions in various
experiments. It is suggested here that neither the conventional hot
p-p nor the conventional hot p-e-p reactions could be expected to
have reaction rates that explain LENR excess heat, because they are
weak reactions and have clear signatures. It is expected strong
lattice element x transmutations of the form p-e-x to be many orders
of magnitude more probable, and that such transmutations would
produce far less excess heat than the nuclear reactions and mass loss
would normally indicate. Further, the following reaction might
produce excess heat by extracting it from the vacuum:
p + e + p -> (p e)* + p -> (p e p)* -> (p e p)* + gamma -> p + e
+ p + gamma
Here the "gamma" is only called gamma because it is radiation issued
from a composite of sub-atomic size, but it consists of many photons
in the EUV range. The electron in the (p e p)* state is massive and
small in wave length, and capable of radiation as well as expanding
its wave form via zero point energy. The binding energy of the (p e
p)* state is electromagnetic and possibly electroweak, with a
significant portion being magnetic, i.e. a relativistic retarded
virtual photon exchange, with energy borrowed from the vacuum for
momentary heavy particle creation. The mechanism of photon creation
is thought to be spin flipping during interactions of the electron
with quarks.
Both lattice transmutation and the radiating (p e p)* states can be
expected to be preceded by formation of a briefly existing deflated
state hydrogen state, i.e.:
p + e <-> (p e)*
and catalyzed by the resulting (p e)* complex. The (p e)* deflated
state is a neutral energy state, a degenerate quantum state that
coexists with the p + e state. However, once, by tunneling, such a
complex combines with a positive nucleus, the resulting complex, (p e
p)* or (p e x)* is highly de-energized by an amount dependent upon
the initial wavelength of the state that results from the tunneling
and wave function collapse. This de-energizing is not energy
conservative. The field energy is momentarily returned to the
vacuum. Considering the cold fusion version of the p-e-p reaction we
would most commonly have:
p + e + p -> (p e)* + p -> (p e p)* -> p + e + p + gamma
where gamma is multiple EUV photons derived from vacuum energy. The
gammas are produced from vacuum energy, as the electron goes through
a process of expanding its wave length and radiating, even though the
initial (p e p)* complex state is highly de-energized.
Similarly, the electron catalyzed p(x,y)gamma transmutation reaction
would occur as follows:
p + e + x -> (p e)* + x -> (p e x)* -> y + e + gamma
where the energy released in the form of multiple gammas has far less
to do with the mass change from x to y than the size of the initial
collapsed (p e x)* wave function.
NUCLEAR ZERO POINT ENERGY
The amount and probability of zero point energy, nuclear heat, in the
form of photons, depends on the duration of the electron's existence
in the nucleus. As noted in the Deflation Fusion article above, the
existence time for the deflated (p e)* or (D e)* state is
attoseconds, though its probability of existence can be high, due to
a high repetition rate. This attosecond existence time greatly
reduces the probability of photon emission from this state. Not so
the post tunneling created de-energized composite structures, (p e p)
*, (p e D)*, (D e D)*, (p e X)*, or (D e X)*, the existence of which
is prolonged by the electron not having enough kinetic energy to
escape. The half life of the de-energized states may also be
prolonged by momentary and vacuum enabled electroweak reactions in
the nucleus, some of which may in fact produce soft x-ray or EUV
photons. Various of such reactions have been proposed by Giancarlo
Giazzoni:
http://philica.com/display_article.php?article_id=160
It appears likely that zero point energy is available to a small
wavelength electron in a nucleus, especially within Ni or Al
cathodes, i.e. from a (p e Ni)* or (p e Al)* state, or in association
with Li absorbed in cathodes. See:
http://mtaonline.net/~hheffner/NuclearZPEtapping.pdf
http://mtaonline.net/~hheffner/HeisenbergTraps.pdf
The existence of at least a brief small wavelength (p e)* or (D e)*
state, of some kind, whether as specified here or not, can not be
denied. Electrons in fact exist within the nucleus with small
probability even in ordinary hydrogen. Electrons exist in nuclei
prior to electron capture. Such electrons have high kinetic energy,
high (relativistic) mass, and small size. Electrons pass through the
nucleus with very high probabilities, i.e. high repetition rates, in
some molecules and it appears there is a high probability of such
transits associated with partial orbitals that are created in the
lattice. See:
http://mtaonline.net/~hheffner/PartOrb.pdf
especially the addendum.
The reaction:
p + e <-> (p e)*
has no associated energy unless a photon emission occurs, but then
that is another reaction entirely. The (p e)* state has an
attosecond order existence. The transformation to and from the
deflated (p e)* state is thus rapid and may in fact exist only in a
probabilistic quantum wave form sense. It requires no stretch of
imagination or credulity to accept the possibility a (p e)* state
complex can tunnel as a whole, or be tunneled to, by a charged
particle. Even paired electrons in semiconductors have the ability to
tunnel as pairs. Engineering excess heat is thus largely a matter of
engineering high probabilities of deflated states, and high tunneling
rates within the lattice.
NUCLEAR REMEDIATION
Proton based reaction may account for change in thorium and other
decay rates in ultrasonic cavitation experiments. An article about
this:
http://www.newscientist.com/article/mg20327190.100-nuclear-decay-
puzzle.html
States:
"The most dramatic change in radioactive decay has, however, recently
been observed by Fabio Cardone and others on the decay of thorium-228
by using ultrasonic cavitation in water (Physics Letters A, vol 373,
p 1956). In this case, the radioactive decay rate was increased by a
whopping factor of 10,000."
The capture of a deflated state hydrogen (p e)* by Th229 provides a
surprisingly rational explanation for the results. No extra energy
is required for the tunneling. The reactions are:
(p +e)* + 228Th -> (229Pa e)* -> 229Th
The 229Th has a 7900 year half-life, with a 5.52 MeV alpha decay, so
it might not be noticed unless the experiment were run much longer.
It is a notable coincidence that 229Pa has a 1.5 day half-life. Also
notable is that 229Pa has two decay modes: electron capture, which is
normally 99.8% probable, with 0.31 MeV released, and alpha decay,
which is 0.2% probable, with 5.836 MeV released. However, the (229Pa
e)* state is highly de-energized, with the electron in continual
proximity, so electron capture with no high energy radiation would be
the principal result.
DEFINING SOME QUARK RELATED NOTATION
Suppose a proton is designated (u,d,u), and a neutron (d,u,d). This
is somewhat representative of how, upon inspection, we might expect
to find the quarks oriented, with the like charge quarks tending to
be separated, co-located in the proton or neutron wavefunction. The d
quark has -1/3 q charge and the u quark has +2/3 q charge, giving the
proton +1 q charge and the neutron neutral, but with an outer
envelope of negative charge and inner core of positive charge. The
proton would then interestingly tend to have an outer shell of
positive charge, and an inner core with neutral to negative charge.
In an overall deuteron wavefunction, this distribution of charge
would tend to slightly increase the d-n bond, as of course would spin
coupling. In addition there would tend to be a kind of hadron
version of the van der Waals force between the hadrons, due to
location uncertainty combined with inter-hadron coulomb co-location
of quarks exposed on the surfaces of the interacting hadrons. This
is a form of a Casimir force that results in some degree of bonding
or attraction between any two hadrons, including two neutrons, even
if for a very short half-life.
Now enter the momentarily nucleus bound electron, the deflated
electron. A singly deflated proton p* looks like (u,d,(u e)), and
is neutral, a doubly deflated proton -p** looks like ((u e), d, (u
e)), and is negative, while a deflated neutron is -d* (d,(u e),d) and
is negative. The momentary (u e) couplet can be called a deflated
up quark, and simply designated u*, and has -1/3 charge.
WEAK REACTIONS
Now, upon fusion, the deflated up charge u* has the extra energy
available for a weak reaction, a u* transformation, the creation of
namely:
energy + u* -> d + anti-neutrino
which might also be notated:
fusion energy + (u,d,u*) -> (d,u,d) + anti-neutrino
fusion energy + p* -> n + anti-neutrino
where the close bond between the up quark and electron provides the
extra proximity-time to pull off the weak reaction with a much higher
cross section than might be expected.
This provides many possible reactions between deflated and ordinary
combinations of protons, protons plus deuterons and deuterons.
Among the more interesting are:
D* + D -> (nnnp) + anti-neutrino
D* + D* -> nnnn + 2 anti-neutrinos
D** + D -> nnnn + 2 anti-neutrinos
followed instantly by the tunneling of the nnnn or nnnp into a nearby
nucleus. In fact the second tunneling might be avoided entirely by a
combined 3-way wavefunction collapse on a lattice nucleus, of the form
D* + X + D* -> Y + one or two neutrinos
Many of the resulting reactions would produce small kinetic energy
due to the reaction energy being carried off by neutrinos.
MISCELLANEOUS FUSION REACTIONS
Some other reactions of interest:
p + p* -> D + anti-neutrino
p + D* -> He3 + anti-neutrino
p* + D -> He3 + anti-neutrino
D + D* -> He4 + e
D + D* -> He3 + n + e
D + D* -> T + p + e
D* + D* -> He4 + 2 e
D* + D* -> T + p +2 e
D* + D* -> He3 +n + e + anti-neutrino
D** + D -> He4 + 2 e
D** + D -> He3 +n + e + anti-neutrino
D** + D -> T + p +2 e
There are of course a host of others involving tritium, lithium, and
boron etc.
Note that these reactions would not be feasible in a plasma because
the probability of the deflated state forming with high repeatability
would be nominal.
STRANGE EXCHANGE IN PROTON
Denote an anti-particle with an apostrophe, so S is a -1/3 q strange
quark, and S' is a +1/3 q anti-strange quark.
If an S S' (virtual) pair is momentarily added to a proton from the
vacuum, a common event, it could be denoted:
(U,D,U) -> (U,D,U,S,S')
If an anti-strange quark were to nucleate the deflated state this
would be denoted:
(U,D,U,S,(S' e))
and the bound electron would increase the lifetime of the virtual
strange quarks. Post fusion this could result in:
(U,S,U) + (D,S') + e
where the K0 kaon (D,S') goes its separate way post fusion, and the
alpha formed has a strange proton replacing one of its normal
protons. The (u,s,u) particle is called a Sigma+. The sigma+ has a
mean lifetime of 8.018x10^-11 s. It decays into a proton plus pion0,
or neutron plus pion+. The pion0 has a mean lifetime of 8.4x10^-17 s
and decays into 2 gammas or a gamma and electron-positron pair. The
pion+ has a mean lifetime of 2.6x10^-8 s, and decays into a positive
muon, mu+, plus muon neutrino, or a positron plus neutrino. The sigma
+ decay decays at a mean distance no further than 2.41 cm from its
origin.
STRANGE EXCHANGE IN NEUTRON
Similarly for the neutron we might have:
(D,U,D) -> (D,U,D,S,S')
If an anti-strange quark were to nucleate the deflated state this
would be denoted:
(D,U,D,S,(S' e))
and the bound electron would increase the lifetime of the virtual
quarks. Post fusion this could result in:
(D,U,S) + (D,S') + e
and the K0 kaon again goes its separate way post fusion. The (D,U,S)
particle is called a sigma0, and has a 7.4x10^-20 s mean lifetime. It
decays into a lamda0 plus gamma. The lambda0 has a mean lifetime of
2.631x10^-10 s, and decays into a proton plus negative pion, pion-,
or neutron plus pion0. The sigma0 decays at a mean distance no
further than 7.89 cm from its origin.
The proportion of kaon production vs ordinary fusion depends on the
probability of finding a strange quark pair within a hadron, which is
fairly high.
IMPLICATIONS
Tracks originating deep in CR39 particle detectors near CF cells
might in some small part be due to short half-life K0s kaons, which
decay in
Ts = 0.9822+-0.0020 x 10^-10 s
This gives a mean unobstructed path Ls for the K0s of length:
Ls = Ts * c = 2.67 cm
or less.
This implies it might be of interest to locate a CR-39 target about
2.7 cm away from a CF device, or somewhat less to see if anything
develops. A stack of CR-39 chips might be of interest.
THE KAON SCENARIOS
The k0 particle is neutral, and thus is capable of mixing,
oscillating between itself K0, i.e. (d,s'), and its own antiparticle
state K0', (d',s). The frequency of the oscillation Fo being:
Fo = 0.5351+-00.24 x 10^-10 s
and the oscillation length Lo is:
Lo = Fo * c = 1.6042 cm
or less.
This means a target just 1.6 cm away from the source of K0 particles,
or less, might be a locus of accumulation of antimatter down quarks,
or their annihilation. Interaction of a k0s', an anti-K0-short,
with another hadron, feasible because the K0 is neutral, can cause
annihilation of the down quark pairs d and d' present, resulting in
gammas, and replacement of the proton or neutron down quark d with a
strange quark s.
K0-Long, a longer half life particle, can also result, which has half
life TL given by:
TL = 581 Ts = 5.697x10^-8 s
and a mean unobstructed path length LL:
LL = 5.697x10^-8 s * c = 1.71 m
which might be of concern for an operator.
It is of further interest that K0-Short can decay into pion pairs, pi
+ and Pi-, (u,d') and (d,u'), which have a mean lifetime of 2.6 x
10^-8 s. The pi- decays into a negative muon, mu-, and the pi+ into
a positive muon, mu+. It is well known the mu- can cause fusion that
exhibits conventional fusion branching ratios and signatures. Both
the mu- and mu+ have antimatter quarks which are capable of creating
their own energetic signature possibilities.
In addition to charged pion pairs, the K-Long can decay into various
combinations which include neutral pions pi0. The pi0 can decay into
two gammas or a gamma plus an electron-anti-electron pair.
KOAN IMPLICATIONS
Perhaps some CF signatures, the comparatively rare strange reactions,
exist further away from the cell than where the particle detectors
are typically located. These things also indicate the possible
utility of kaon barriers.
Best regards,
Horace Heffner
http://www.mtaonline.net/~hheffner/
