I think the loading percentage, concentration or pressure of hydrogen
that can be achieved is not the most important thing. Bubble
pressures of over 7 GPa (690,000 atmospheres) have been achieved by
hydrogen implantation in aluminum (see reference material below).
That was not enough by itself. High energy stimulation was further
required. It is a *mix* of factors that must be achieved to perform
reliable energy production. The most important factors are likely
the orbital characteristics of the hydrogen circling electrons, and
the tunneling rates for the hydrogen, I think. Also, high
temperature lattices should clearly be used if for no other reason to
permit energy conversion at high Carnot efficiencies. But there are
other reasons. Lattices that can not possibly work at room
temperature, which are essentially impermeable to hydrogen, can work
at high temperature. There thus no limiting work primarily to Pd and
Ni lattices. Much stronger lattices can be designed, alloys, possibly
latices with special valence, spin, and nuclear characteristics. A
wide range of engineering possibilities emerges at high temperatures,
possibly including ceramics, especially proton conducting ceramics.
The key to all this is to load at very high temperatures, and the
reduce temperature to achieve an appropriate compressed state without
cracking the lattice, and I would hope this compressed state would
include a highly degenerate state of hydrogen.
I think the most affordable way to investigate this kind of thing
might be using hot wires, as various researchers have had positive
results in this mode. Current through the wire can then be used to
control not only the temperature, but also the tunneling rate. Large
potentials can also be applied to the wire, as in the Claytor et al
experiments. Loading of the wire can also readily occur through ion
implantation or pressure or a combination.
That's my two cents worth on this.
Here are some summaries of Kamada experiments that achieved
incredible hydrogen pressures and concentrations:
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
1992 Article:
Kamada states the H-H fusion reaction was observed based on beta
disintegration of proton upon high energy electron capture, which
does not need tunneling
1 event per 2x10^14 electrons
200 KeV and 400 keV beam energies were used.
implantation fluence > 1x10^17 H+ or D+/cm^2 using Cockcroft Walton
type acceleration (voltage not mentioned)
1.3 MeV alphas (80%) and >0.4 MeV protons (20%) emitted from *both*
H2 and D2 implanted targets
Beam density must be greater than 3x10^16 electrons/cm/s to get high
energy particles emitted. From this I calculate the minimum flux to
be 4.8 mA/cm^2.
Beam used was 300 to 400 nA with beam size 4x10-5 cm^2.
Flux actually used was 4-6x10^16 electrons/cm^2/s.
Area through which beam was passed was 2x10^-3 cm^2.
Time beam on target was 40 minutes.
Tunnel like structures (between the bubble structures) *must be
formed* to get the high energy particle emissions. They occupy
roughly 60 percent of the sub-surface layer with about 50 nm depth.
Molar volume of hydrogen = 10 cm^3/mol.
Density of hydrogen molecues exposed to beam = 6x10^22/cm^2.
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
1996 Article:
experiment repeated 30 times
Positive results with D, negative results with H.
No effort was made to count particles.
175 keV electron beam energy was used to avoid radiation damage to
the Al
25 keV implantation at fluence of less than 5x10^17 H+/cm^2 was used.
This is 12.5 keV per H atom implanted.
The maximum retained hydrogen fluence (determined by ERD) after
implantation was 1x10^17 atoms/cm^2, and density 2x10^17 H/cm^3. The
density in the D2 collections was estimated at 1x10^22 D2/cm^3.
Loading fluence 5x10^17 D+/cm^2 was chosen to *avoid forming bubble
structures* and to form as many tunnel structures as possible. At a
lower fluence only bubble structures are formed. When tunnel
structures form between the bubbles, the bubbles empty out into the
tunnel structures. At higher fluences, the bubble structures start to
form again.
Hydrogen bubble pressure estimated at 7 GPa.
Average implantation depth about 60 nm., max depth about 90 nm.
Estimated heat out to beam energy absorbed (per spot) was 6x10^5.
Estimated heat out to beam energy absorbed (total surface) was 1x10^5.
Degree of focusing was 50 nA on 1x10^-6 m diameter.
Flux used was 4x10^19 electrons/cm^2/s. I calculate 6.41 A/cm^2.
Flux must be over 1x10^19 electrons/cm^2/s to get the effect. I
caculate the minimum flux to be 1.6 A/cm^2.
Melting was observed in small transformed regions of about 1x10^-9 cm^2.
Using a depth of 90 nm this gives 6.1x10-12 cal. per melted region,
or 159 MeV per transformed region. The melting occurred in less than
10 seconds and the pools solidified in about one minute into the
polycrystalline form.
The thickness of the aluminum target was 8x10^-5 cm.
The electron stopping power |dE/dt| of Al used is 0.07eV/Angstrom.
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
Best regards,
Horace Heffner
http://www.mtaonline.net/~hheffner/
