Correction to my note above. Prof. Antoine Capet reminds me that Singapore's problem in 1941 was not so much its guns, which could be pointed landward, but its type of shells. The defenders had armor-piercing shells (designed to sink ships) but not enough high explosive shells that would have been more effective against the Japanese armies. In 1924 Churchill, newly become Chancellor, did question the landward defense of Singapore. The defense was based on submarines, anticipating a seaborne invasion. Churchill thought aircraft would be more effective (and they certainly would have against an invading army); but he didn’t pursue the matter. Through 1939 he remained convinced that a Japanese attack on Singapore was unlikely. Of course, a lot changed between 1939 and 1941.
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