Beyond Einstein: A Solution to One of the Great Mysteries of Cosmology
TOPICS: Astrophysics Gravity University Of Bonn
By UNIVERSITY OF BONN DECEMBER 7, 2023
Dark Energy Cosmic Expansion Einstein Art Concept
A recent study proposes that the “Hubble tension,” a discrepancy in
measurements of the universe’s expansion rate, can be resolved using the
alternative MOND theory of gravity. This theory suggests local matter
density variations account for the observed discrepancies. [KR This is what
I say though I respect science; Vedas and the Science do say something
which is not fully understood; and science builds up a reasoning which is
believed to be within certain conditions only; on the contrary, Vedas say
true value of different perspectives are better than the science; so what
respect we pay for the science , we must pay for in India at least. ]
Study by the Universities of Bonn and St. Andrews proposes a new possible
explanation for the Hubble tension.
The universe is expanding. How fast it does so is described by the
so-called Hubble-Lemaitre constant. But there is a dispute about how big
this constant actually is: Different measurement methods provide
contradictory values. This so-called “Hubble tension” poses a puzzle for
cosmologists. Researchers from the Universities of Bonn and St. Andrews are
now proposing a new solution: Using an alternative theory of gravity, the
discrepancy in the measured values can be easily explained — the Hubble
tension disappears. The study has now been published in the Monthly Notices
of the Royal Astronomical Society (MNRAS).
Understanding the Universe’s Expansion
The expansion of the universe causes the galaxies to move away from each
other. The speed at which they do this is proportional to the distance
between them. For instance, if galaxy A is twice as far away from Earth as
galaxy B, its distance from us also grows twice as fast. The US astronomer
Edwin Hubble was one of the first to recognize this connection.
In order to calculate how fast two galaxies are moving away from each
other, it is therefore necessary to know how far apart they are. However,
this also requires a constant by which this distance must be multiplied. This
is the so-called Hubble-Lemaitre constant, a fundamental parameter in
cosmology. Its value can be determined, for example, by looking at the very
distant regions of the universe. This gives a speed of almost 244,000
kilometres per hour per megaparsec distance (one megaparsec is just over
three million light-years).
Distribution of Matter in Space
(blue; the yellow dots represent individual galaxies). The Milky Way
(green) lies in an area with little matter. The galaxies in the bubble move
in the direction of the higher matter densities (red arrows). The universe
therefore appears to be expanding faster inside the bubble.
*Discrepancy in Measurements*
“But you can also look at celestial bodies that are much closer to us —
so-called category 1a supernovae, which are a certain type of exploding
star,” explains Prof. Dr. Pavel Kroupa from the Helmholtz Institute of
Radiation and Nuclear Physics at the University of Bonn. It is possible to
determine the distance of a 1a supernova to Earth very precisely. We also
know that shining objects change color when they move away from us — and
the faster they move, the stronger the change. This is similar to an
ambulance, whose siren sounds deeper as it moves away from us.
If we now calculate the speed of the 1a supernovae from their color shift
and correlate this with their distance, we arrive at a different value for
the Hubble-Lemaitre constant — namely just under 264,000 kilometers per
hour per megaparsec distance. “The universe therefore appears to be
expanding faster in our vicinity — that is, up to a distance of around
three billion light years — than in its entirety,” says Kroupa. “And that
shouldn’t really be the case.”
However, there has recently been an observation that could explain
this. According
to this, the Earth is located in a region of space where there is
relatively little matter — *comparable to an air bubble in a cake*. The
density of matter is higher around the bubble. Gravitational forces emanate
from this surrounding matter, which pull the galaxies in the bubble towards
the edges of the cavity. “That’s why they are moving away from us faster
than would actually be expected,” explains Dr. Indranil Banik from St.
Andrews University. The deviations could therefore simply be explained by a
local “under-density.”
In fact, another research group recently measured the average speed of a
large number of galaxies that are 600 million light years away from us. “It
was found that these galaxies are moving away from us four times faster
than the standard model of cosmology allows,” explains Sergij Mazurenko
from Kroupa’s research group, who was involved in the current study.
Bubble in the Dough of the Universe
This is because the standard model does not provide for such
under-densities or “bubbles” — they should not actually exist. Instead,
matter should be evenly distributed in space. If this were the case,
however, it would be difficult to explain which forces propel the galaxies
to their high speed.
“The standard model is based on a theory of the nature of gravity put
forward by Albert Einstein,” says Kroupa. “However, the gravitational
forces may behave differently than Einstein expected.” The working groups
from the Universities of Bonn and St. Andrews have used a modified theory
of gravity in a computer simulation. This “modified Newtonian dynamics”
(abbreviation: MOND) was proposed four decades ago by the Israeli physicist
Prof. Dr. Mordehai Milgrom. It is still considered an outsider theory
today. “In our calculations, however, MOND does accurately predict the
existence of such bubbles,” says Kroupa.
If one were to assume that gravity actually behaves according to Milgrom’s
assumptions, the Hubble tension would disappear: There would actually only
be one constant for the expansion of the universe, and the observed deviations
would be due to irregularities in the distribution of matter.
But all this is when setting aside the original wholesale falsification
which happened in 2017 with the first multimessage observation of a neutron
star binary merger. The signals arrived simultaneously showing that gravity
travel at light speed precisely as general relativity predicts and MOND
models fail to predict. (Unless you tweak them *just so*, an unlikely state
of affairs.) C.f. “Troubled Times for Alternatives to Einstein’s Theory of
Gravity New observations of extreme astrophysical systems have “brutally
and pitilessly murdered” attempts to replace Einstein’s general theory of
relativity.” Quanta Magazine 2018.
Locally, we see some planets appear to move away at times to come close at
other times. Why a similar phenomenon can’t happen in the case of distant
galaxies? The universe is not expanding, but revolving around a common
galactic center? (KR There are no movements as we perceive; nor
stationary; variable movements and varied gravitations occur)
>From the description, it appears as if the Earth is the center of the
universe, as the expansion rate of the universe is the same in all
directions. This is obviously wrong.
As per Newtonian Dynamics, gravity is NOT an attractive force. All
parameters of the right-hand side of his equation are constants. Hence, the
force of gravity on the left-hand side should also be a constant. Gravity
is a stabilizing force that stabilizes bodies against a common barycentre.
*The so-called gravitational constant G is not a constant at all*, but at
Earth, it is known to be a variable with a periodicity of 5.93 Earth Years. At
Jupiter or Mercury, it would be different. At galactic level, it would be
totally different.
The basic Friedmann equation needs a review. Some parameters in it have
questionable values. How do you measure the diameter or total mass of the
universe?
Local peculiar blueshifts and a global propensity for galactic mergers is
natural for both cases, but a detailed outcome of cosmological simulations
in the latter case. It isn’t until the far future that local cohesive
aggregates as our Local Group of galaxies will have finished merging and
the remaining super massive elliptical galaxies will disperse without
interaction until they are isolated by the future cosmological horizon.
C.f. “Scale factor (cosmology)”, “Hubble’s law” and “Cosmological horizon”
in Wikipedia.
Why would the diameter or total mass of the universe figure in the
Friedmann equations that govern cosmological models of a homogeneous and
isotropic universe within general relativity? Those parameters are not
studied – note the Scale factor article above – and the equations
explicitly use the average mass density! C.f. “Friedmann equations” in
Wikipedia.
When the 1980 Robert Altman movie POPEYE came out, I was intrigued by the
line in the song What Am I? delivered by the lead character Popeye The
Sailorman: “I ain’t no physickist, but I knows what matters.”
Today I would say: “I’m no particle physicist, but I know what matter is.”
1. There is no matter. Everything is coalesced energy systems. (a)
2. There is no mass-energy equivalence. E=Mc^2 restated is E=E. (b)
3. Energy is not generated, only converted from one form to another. (c)
4. There is no Dark Energy. There are instead, Gravitons. (d)
5. Gravitons give “mass” to other energy systems. (e)
6. Gravity does not attract, it repels. (f)
7. Gravitons do not flow. (g)
*8. Space-time does not bend. (h)*
(a) Particle physicists are burning up vast resources seeking the “smallest
particle” but keep finding smaller and smaller energy systems with life
spans so short that new, smaller units of time have to be invented to
describe them. All atoms are comprised entirely of bonded energy systems
and include gravitons. While it is certainly convenient to think of
photons, gluons, bosons and gravitons as force carrier particles, it is
more accurate to think of them as coalesced energy waves vibrating at
various frequencies just as are quarks and leptons. Particles are merely
the shadows on the walls of Plato’s cave. “Particles” are made up of
aggregates of energy wave packets bound with gravitons. New particles are
not discovered by use of colliders, the collider creates new or previously
unobserved energy systems. Energy does not convert to matter (particles)
without starting with matter in collision with other matter. Coalesced
energy that exhibits mass will include gravitons and spin. It is a process
of converting one form of energy into another form of energy. So many of
the theories of particles come with the disclaimer “hasn’t been observed”.
That everything is made up of energy vibrations at various frequencies and
spin waves opens the mind to a Universe of energy, not matter, and makes
converting that energy to use for the betterment of humanity less
distracting.
(b) Albert Einstein was blessed with a 3rd eye to see what others could not
see, and with a 6th sense to experience what others could not.
Let us restate the mass-energy equivalence, E=M^2:
The speed of light raised to the power of 2 is 89,875,517,873,681,764
meters per second. That is equal to the number of resultant Joules for 1
kilogram of mass. The only input variable to this equation is the number of
kilograms of mass. Are we to assume then that 1 kilogram of enriched
uranium would yield the same output of Joules as a 1-kilogram water
balloon? Then we have the question of what is a kilogram. A kilogram near
the Earth’s surface is very different than a kilogram near the surface of
the moon or at the barycentre. If everything is Energy, then E=E. All the
rest is some conversion factor. It is a matter of energy in vs. energy out.
(c) Faraday would today easily understand the principles behind even the
most sophisticated propulsion systems in our most modern submarines:
converting fuel to heat energy, converted to kinetic energy, converted to
electrical energy, and converted finally back to kinetic energy to drive
the propeller. Becquerel on the other hand would be appalled by how little
progress we had made converting the sun’s rays into electricity. He would
no doubt shake his head that Tesla’s idea for a resonant cavity that would
convert the Earth’s spin into electricity was never funded for even given a
trial. But he would quickly understand that a graviton-electric cell would
also realize his dreams of limitless free electricity, but from the Earth’s
gravity. It is highly possible to create a non-kinetic graviton-electric
cell that would convert the force of graviton energy into electricity much
as solar-electric cells convert photon energy or as Tesla’s Resonant Cavity.
The 1830s were a critical time for energy physics as were the 1930s and as
will be in the 2030s. We were presented with two divergent paths in the
1830s on the road to harvesting abundant energy: Faraday’s disk and
Becquerel’s photo voltaic cell. New and improved kinetic “generators” and
methods to turn the crank led us to a deep dependence upon the purveyors of
fossil fuels to power them. Investors could not see far enough into the
future to forgo immediate profits for unproven methods to convert free
energy from the sun, let alone from gravity. Lenz’s Law (1834) of induced
current in a changing magnetic field applies equally to a gravitational
field. Rabi’s work on nuclear magnetic resonance suggests nuclear graviton
resonance. Thinking of muons as energy systems instead of particles suggest
gravitons as the carrier of mass.
The graviton-electric cell has at least two possible solutions, *both
non-kinetic**.* Firstly, an electromagnetic stress-energy tensor field
generating an electric flux via a magnonic crystal or similar substances
that would work like piezo-electricity but without Poynting vector
acceleration.
Secondly, there would be the gyromagnetic factor-like polarizability of a
dielectric and Mott insulators with a strong permanent magnet creating a
magnon-rich environment causing a magnetic/electrostatic/electrostatic
induction inside a transformer.
The resulting electric energy could be stored in carbon-cement flux
supercapacitors. The Born-Oppenheimer Approximation regarding photons
applies equally to gravitons when absorbed energy starts to vibrate, the
vibrations enable spin to flip, changing electronic states. This
inter-system crossing results in a spin-vibronic effect. MOND acceleration
at zero allows for a different gravitational behaviour to take over.
(d) There was always the fabric of homogenous graviton energy systems that
made up the infinite Universe much like the water in the seas. Gravitons
not bound to other energy aggregates are free gravitons and make up the
bulk of the energy in the Universe. Then about 13.8 billion years ago some
of that graviton energy converted into different energy systems, combined
with gravitons and rapidly reproduced and formed other graviton bonded
energy systems and expanded out into the Universe, it continues to do so
now by graviton forces pushing out in all direction. A useful corollary
would the beginnings of life through some mutation and recombination of
energy systems 3.5 billion years ago. When I was young, my Norwegian mother
told me a folktale about a mystical stone when put in a pot of hot water,
the skeptical villagers observed the water magically transform into soup.
Perhaps the “Big-Bang” was like that stone. Or, perhaps analogous to how
rock candy is formed; to the observer, there is nothing to see in a jar of
super-saturated sugar-water until a after a single sugar seed-crystal is
introduced. Much like the primordial soup from which life emerged, there
was the primordial energy soup of gravitons that was the Universe before
the various other energy systems emerged.
(e) Gravitons are wave packets, not bosons, and give other wave packets
“mass”. Gravitons with positive monopole massless systems of fundamental
force energy that can be free in the expanding known Universe as
quintessence or aggregate with and give “mass” to other, different energy
wave packets. Graviton energy systems are closely associated with subatomic
hadron energy in the proton energy system.
Gravitons are part of all atomic nuclei and most associated with the
proton. Gravitons only act upon other gravitons only influence associated
bound aggregated energy systems such a hadron energy system. Baryonic
“matter” is graviton energy systems aggregated to other energy systems;
“dark matter” is comprised of free gravitons. While we think of measuring
gravity in units of newtons, the force of gravity does not necessarily
entail the acceleration of mass. It is the transfer of energy from one
graviton to another in a line that gives mass to objects. Gravitons are the
quintessential manifestation of electroweak unification. The higher the
frequency of a graviton, the higher the energy. When the vibrations of
gravitons and the vibrations of associated energy systems are in resonance
the forces cancel each other out causing “weightlessness”. The greater the
frequency difference between a “mass” and a graviton, the greater the
acceleration of that mass. When a mass absorbs a graviton, it gains a
unique energy. This energy is then converted into momentum, which causes
the mass to accelerate. The amount of acceleration that the mass experience
depends on the frequency of the graviton and the associated mass. The
higher the frequency of the graviton, the more energy it has and the more
acceleration the mass will experience. This is because the mass is
absorbing more energy in a shorter amount of time.
(f) Gravitons exert energy flux as a Poynting vector to the “gravitational
center” of the nearest, largest object. In our case, Earth is the nearest,
largest object. All energy systems, being also comprised of gravitons, are
drawn along toward that center. Being the largest concentration of
aggregated gravitons, the gravitational force is greatest near the surface
of the earth and almost completely absent at the geo-center, being balanced
out in all directions by the graviton force of the surrounding Earth and
increasing closer to the surface.
Likewise, the force of free gravitons surrounding the Earth lessens with
the distance away from the surface of the Earth. The barycentre between the
Earth and the Moon also serves to balance the forces of gravitons between
and around them. The internal forces within the Earth are inversely
proportional to the graviton energy at every depth. The pressure in pascals
at the center of a very large object such as the Earth is a result of the
combined pressures from the surface to the center while the actual graviton
force decreases. By way of illustration only, (your results will vary) let
us describe four levels of the Earth from the surface of the crust to the
surface of the inner core.
At the surface of the Earth, we have one atmosphere of pressure and four
units of graviton energy. At the first depth level we have 1+0.9 = 1.9
atmospheres of pressure and 4-0.9=3.1 units of graviton force. At the next
depth level, we have 1+0.9+0.8=2.17 atmospheres of pressure and
4-0.9-0.8=2.3 units of graviton force. At the final level we would have
1+0.9+0.8+0.7=3.4 atmospheres of pressure and 4-0.9-0.8-0.7=1.6 units of
graviton force. Although the atmospheres of pressure decrease linearly for
each level, the total atmospheres of pressure grow exponentially. Finally,
at the center of the core we would have the maximum atmospheres of pressure
and minimal or no graviton pressure force. Electrostatic repulsion keeps
molecules from being compressed/collapsed.
(g) Gravitons transfer energy as a wave or as the quantum entanglement of
the suspended balls of Newton’s cradle. Enter Bell states and The Hadamard
gate. Tesla’s Wharncliffe Tower would have pushed electric energy packets
against one another to have the energy transferred and received at great
distances without wires.
*(h) Space-time does not bend like a bowling ball pushing upon the flexible
surface of a trampoline, but rather flows like the water pressure from all
directions upon a displacing bathysphere in the ocean*. When a sufficient
amount of gravitons aggregated with other energy systems come together in
close proximity, the repellent force of free gravitons becomes so great
that a black hole is created. {KR: Science theory: How a black hole is
created}
*It is the observable Universe that is expanding* rather than an eternal,
infinite unobservable Universe. As Kierkegaard once wrote, “There are two
ways to be fooled: Believe what is not true. Refuse to believe what is
true.” If our only reality is what we can apprehend via our senses, we may
as well be just another prisoner in Plato’s cave.
K RAJARAM IRS 101223
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