Much discussion has occurred in the cold fusion (LENR) literature
regarding the importance of achieving high D/Pd ratios, i.e. high D/
Pd loading ratios, in CF cathodes, and thus high hydrogen fugacity.
Fugacity is similar to pressure in that it is a measure of the energy
required to add an additional atom to the system. See:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fugacity
Much work in the field has focused on the difficulty of achieving
high fugacity because lattice imperfections exist, electrode metals
fail, diffusion occurs into cracks, etc.
Some work has focused on the importance of superimposed electrostatic
fields in or on cathodes, specifically that of S. Szpak, P. A. Mosier-
Boss, F. E. Gordon. For early work see:
http://lenr-canr.org/acrobat/SzpakSprecursors.pdf
This work noted structural and morphological changes in electrode
structure, dendritic growth, etc., in the presence of strong
electrostatic fields. Based on this work I suggested a change in
cell geometry to maximize field potential at the surface of the
cathode, and active area of the cathode. See:
http://www.mtaonline.net/~hheffner/Szpak.pdf
Despite an intense focus on hydrogen fugacity, and some work related
to superimposed electrostatic fields, no work has focused on electron
fugacity. This is a complex area due to the quantum mechanical
requirement for degenerate electrons to occupy ever higher energetic
states when their density passes a critical value, and no conduction
electron is free to "move". See:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Degenerate_matter
One aspect of achieving high loading coefficients is that free
conduction band electrons, which are ionically bound to the adsorbed
hydrogen in the lattice, are bound to a specific location when the
adsorbed hydrogen reaches saturation and thus can no longer diffuse.
In fact, one means of measuring cathode loading is to measure cathode
conductivity. A key aspect of achieving high electron fugacity then,
when no other means is applied or even known to be of use, is to
achieve loading to the point no diffusion can occur. Cracked
electrodes, lattice imperfections, unsealed exposed surfaces, and
anything else that permits diffusion decreases electron fugacity.
Electron fugacity at the surface of a metal conductor can be
increased by raising the potential of the metal. This increase of
potential is synonymous with an increase in charge density. Free
electrons migrate to the surface of a metal conductor - to a point.
When saturation occurs, additional electrons are forced to occupy
locations within the volume of the conductor. At very high
potentials, orbitals of surface atoms deform out into the space
beyond the normal surface.
If sufficient fugacity is achieved the addition of more electrons
results in higher energy state of the electrons, not a higher
temperature of the electron "gas". It is at this point fusion may
possibly be catalysed. High electron energies, reduced deBroglie
wavelength, permits electron catalysis of fusion. The 3 body
tunneling reaction is energetically increased:
D+ + e- + D+ ---> He++ + e- + energy
D+ + e- + D+ ---> T+ + P + e- + energy
This involves the simultaneous 2 body tunneling of an electron and
deuteron to the location of another deuteron. When the fugacity of
both hydrogen and electrons reaches a critical point, addition of
more energy to the lattice results in fusions. This is an energy
focusing effect. An increase in the group energy state, i.e. group
fugacity, results in a pressure outlet involving only a few members.
Note that the catalytic electron escape reduces the resultant nuclear
temperature. The branching ratios from an electron catalyzed
reaction will differ from those of a kinetic fusion reaction.
The surface electron fugacity of a cathode can be achieved by
increasing the electrostatic potential of the cathode, and thus the
electrostatic field at the cathode surface. It can also be increased
by a bumpy or dendritic surface.
An alternative way, or more importantly an additional way, to
increase the electric field strength at an electrode surface is to
bounce a laser beam off of it at a high angle of deflection. Laser
stimulation of a very high negative potential cathode surface may
work in a gas environment, provided the surface outgassing is
controlled by choice of a surface metal with a low hydrogen
permeability and which sustains both a high hydrogen and high
electron fugacity. Such a surface can be fed adsorbed hydrogen via a
Pd backing.
Enough for now.
Horace Heffner
http://www.mtaonline.net/~hheffner/
