On Jul 28, 2007, at 3:43 PM, Robin van Spaandonk wrote:
In reply to Horace Heffner's message of Fri, 27 Jul 2007 21:03:48
-0800:
Hi,
[snip]
The method of applying high electron fugacity to deuterium loaded
cathodes has the objective of creating an energy focusing effect,
forcing co-centered wavefunction collapse, resulting in electron
catalyzed fusion:
D + e- + D -> He + e- + gamma
If the electron is so intimately involved in the fusion event, then
there is
also a chance that it will carry away he energy of the reaction, at
least some
of the time.
Yes, indeed. I've made (or tried to make) this point many times in
regard to electron catalyzed fusion over recent years. It is a point
repeatedly missed or disbelieved by the community I think. It is the
source of the differing branching ratios of CF I believe, and the
initially cold nuclear temperature ash. I assume you missed recent
prior posts on the electron fugacity issue, which included a fairly
detailed discussion of this issue, so I'll repost a recent summary
below. If you want to save time and skip to this specific topic just
search for "hot branching" below:
On Jul 24, 2007, at 12:27 PM, Horace Heffner wrote:
On Jul 24, 2007, at 10:38 AM, Michel Jullian wrote:
I haven't followed this thread for lack of understanding of most
of the concepts, is this a new explanation for CF you are
proposing Horace?
Yes, and a new approach to obtaining it, though it is based on a
lot of prior thinking.
A short summary for dummies would be most welcome, it might help
others too.
Here I've consolidated everything as best as I can quickly. I
expect it will evolve into an article for my website.
ELECTRON CATALYZED FUSION
Electron catalyzed fusion is a concept explored in:
http://mtaonline.net/~hheffner/EcatFusion.pdf
and various posts to vortex in 2001 and prior. The following few
paragraphs, from the above article, are an initital approach to
understanding the concept, which is fairly simple.
Suppose you have three charges, two deutrium nucleii (+) and and
electron (-), all in a line in the x axis separated by (an initial)
distance of 10^-11 m:
d1 d2
(+) (-) (+)
v1-> v2->
What is the initial net force on each particle? The force between
the left deuterium nucleus and the electron and is given by
F1 = q^2/(4 Pi e0 r^2) = 8.98 N
and is to the right towards the electron. The force the two
deuterium nucleii is repulsive and is 1/4 the magnitude of the
force between the deuterium and the electron because the distance
is doubled, i.e. d1 + d2 = 2 d1. So the net force on the left
deuteron is 3/4 * 8.98 N = 6.74 N and is to the right. Similarly,
the net force on the right deuteron is 6.74 N and is to the left.
The net force on the electron balances out to zero... (More
follows in the article.)
More discussions regarding electron catalysis of fusion are:
http://mtaonline.net/~hheffner/ElectPairs.pdf
http://mtaonline.net/~hheffner/DualElectronCatFusion.pdf
http://www.mtaonline.net/~hheffner/PairLNR.pdf
ELECTRON FUGACITY AND COLD FUSION
Much discussion has occurred in the cold fusion (LENR) literature
regarding the importance of achieving high D/Pd ratios, i.e. high D/
Pd loading ratios, in CF cathodes, and thus high hydrogen
fugacity. Fugacity is similar to pressure in that it is a measure
of the energy required to add an additional atom to the system. See:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fugacity
Much work in the field has focused on the difficulty of achieving
high fugacity because lattice imperfections exist, electrode metals
fail, diffusion occurs into cracks, etc.
Some work has focused on the importance of superimposed
electrostatic fields in or on cathodes, specifically that of S.
Szpak, P. A. Mosier-Boss, F. E. Gordon. For early work see:
http://lenr-canr.org/acrobat/SzpakSprecursors.pdf
This work noted structural and morphological changes in electrode
structure, dendritic growth, etc., in the presence of strong
electrostatic fields. Based on this work I suggested a change in
cell geometry to maximize field potential at the surface of the
cathode, and active area of the cathode. See:
http://www.mtaonline.net/~hheffner/Szpak.pdf
Despite an intense focus on hydrogen fugacity, and some work
related to superimposed electrostatic fields, no work has focused
on electron fugacity. This is a complex area due to the quantum
mechanical requirement for degenerate electrons to occupy ever
higher energetic states when their density passes a critical value,
and no conduction electron is free to "move". See:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Degenerate_matter
One aspect of achieving high loading coefficients is that free
conduction band electrons, which are ionically bound to the
adsorbed hydrogen in the lattice, are bound to a specific location
when the adsorbed hydrogen reaches saturation and thus can no
longer diffuse. In fact, one means of measuring cathode loading is
to measure cathode conductivity. A key aspect of achieving high
electron fugacity then, when no other means is applied or even
known to be of use, is to achieve loading to the point no diffusion
can occur. Cracked electrodes, lattice imperfections, unsealed
exposed surfaces, and anything else that permits diffusion
decreases electron fugacity.
Electron fugacity at the surface of a metal conductor can be
increased by raising the potential of the metal. This increase of
potential is synonymous with an increase in charge density. Free
electrons migrate to the surface of a metal conductor - to a
point. When saturation occurs, additional electrons are forced to
occupy locations within the volume of the conductor. At very high
potentials, orbitals of surface atoms deform out into the space
beyond the normal surface.
If sufficient fugacity is achieved the addition of more electrons
results in higher energy state of the electrons, not a higher
temperature of the electron "gas". It is at this point fusion may
possibly be catalysed. High electron energies, reduced deBroglie
wavelength, permits electron catalysis of fusion. The 3 body
tunneling reaction is energetically increased:
D+ + e- + D+ ---> He++ + e- + energy
D+ + e- + D+ ---> T+ + P + e- + energy
This involves the simultaneous 2 body tunneling of an electron and
deuteron to the location of another deuteron. When the fugacity of
both hydrogen and electrons reaches a critical point, addition of
more energy to the lattice results in fusions. This is an energy
focusing effect. An increase in the group energy state, i.e. group
fugacity, results in a pressure outlet involving only a few members.
Note that the catalytic electron escape reduces the resultant
nuclear temperature. The branching ratios from an electron
catalyzed reaction will differ from those of a kinetic fusion
reaction.
The surface electron fugacity of a cathode can be achieved by
increasing the electrostatic potential of the cathode, and thus the
electrostatic field at the cathode surface. It can also be
increased by a bumpy or dendritic surface.
An alternative way, or more importantly an additional way, to
increase the electric field strength at an electrode surface is to
bounce a laser beam off of it at a high angle of deflection.
Laser stimulation of a very high negative potential cathode surface
may work in a gas environment, provided the surface outgassing is
controlled by choice of a surface metal with a low hydrogen
permeability and which sustains both a high hydrogen and high
electron fugacity. Such a surface can be fed adsorbed hydrogen via
a Pd backing.
ELECTRON CATALYSIS AND WAVEFUNCTION COLLAPSE
If sufficient electron and deuteron fugacity is achieved the
probability of a 3 body tunneling reaction is energetically increased:
D+ + e- + D+ ---> He++ + e- + energy
D+ + e- + D+ ---> T+ + P + e- + energy
This involves the simultaneous 2 body tunneling of an electron and
deuteron to the location of another deuteron. When the fugacity of
both hydrogen and electrons reaches a critical point, addition of
more energy to the lattice results in fusions. This is an energy
focusing effect. An increase in the group energy state, i.e. group
fugacities, results in a pressure outlet involving wavefunction
collapse of only a few members. Let us examine how this might
change branching ratios.
The following are standard hot branching ratios:
D + D --> T(1.01 MeV) + p(3.03 MeV) (4.03 MeV, 50%)
D + D --> 3He(0.82 MeV) + n(2.45 MeV) (3.27 MeV, 50%)
D + D --> 4He( 76 keV) + gamma (23.8 MeV) (23.9 MeV,
1x10^-6)
The initial effect of an electron in a newly fused combined nucleus
is to reduce its potential energy. The tunneling of two deuterons
and an electron to a point is the result of a wavefunction
collapse. The amount of energy lost in the wavefunction collapse
is dependent on the size of the combined intermediate result.
From the electric potential energy Pe for separating an electron
from two deuterons we have:
Pe = k (-2q)(q)(1/r) = (2.88x10^-9 eV m) (1/r)
which we can rearrange to obtain r for a given potential energy,
r = (2.88x10^-9 eV m) (1/Pe)
and we have for 23.9 MeV:
r = (2.88x10^-9 eV m) (1/(23.9x10^6 eV))
r = 1.2x10^-16 m
which is about 10 times the diameter of a quark, and thus in the
realm of credibility. It is feasible for the wavefunction collapse
to initially consume all the available fusion energy.
If the three interacting particles collapse to a point, or even to
quark size, then all the 23.9 MeV available from ordinary hot
fusion (and more) is consumed. This is certainly an energetically
favorable tunneling reaction! Further, given that the collapsed
intermediate nucleus radius is variable in size, according to some
probability distribution, the we can see that the neutron producing
reaction, having the least energy available from the reaction (3.27
MeV), would necessarily be the least likely branch path. Thus we
can see how electron catalyzed fusion produces an initially cool
nucleus, and favors the reaction D + D --> He.
However, the nucleus can't stay cool. The confined electron gains
energy from the vacuum, and from its immediate neighbors. It gains
energy until it has sufficient energy to tunnel out, and take some
kinetic energy with it also. In the process of the electron
gaining energy, while it and the deuterons are confined in and
experiencing accelerations within the energetic nucleus, it can be
expected to radiate. This is the energy of cold fusion, of
electron catalyzed fusion - protracted low energy gammas and beta
radiation. The most likely product is He, and the second most
likely product, though comparatively rare, is T. The least likely
products are He3 and neutrons.
Horace Heffner
http://www.mtaonline.net/~hheffner/
