well it was a bad example. I will read Ray's article recently posted again. But at the start it talks about transistors. That's even more complicated, and maybe a good enough example. Just the simplest chip, far from the pentium chips would be fine. Thanks
On Mon, 27 Aug 2007, Max Robinson wrote: > Inductors are all but unheard of in integrated circuits. They can be made > by laying down a metal wire in the form of a spiral but it takes up a lot of > space and is almost never done. It is possible to wire an amplifier with a > capacitor so it acts like an inductor. It is called a gyrator. Gyrators > can be used at audio and low radio frequencies. > > Regards. > > Max. K 4 O D S. > > Email: [EMAIL PROTECTED] > > Transistor site http://www.funwithtransistors.net > Vacuum tube site: http://www.funwithtubes.net > Music site: http://www.maxsmusicplace.com > > To subscribe to the fun with tubes group send an email to, > [EMAIL PROTECTED] > > ----- Original Message ----- > From: "Boyce, Ray" <[EMAIL PROTECTED]> > To: <[email protected]> > Sent: Monday, August 27, 2007 4:47 PM > Subject: RE: [BlindHandyMan] What Do You Want Information ON? > > >> Hi >> Our world is full of integrated circuits. You find several of them in >> computers. For example, most people have probably heard about the >> microprocessor. >> The microprocessor is an integrated circuit that processes all >> information in the computer. It keeps track of what keys are pressed and >> if the mouse has >> been moved. It counts numbers and runs programs, games and the operating >> system. Integrated circuits are also found in almost every modern >> electrical device >> such as cars, television sets, CD players, cellular phones, etc. But >> what is an integrated circuit and what is the history behind it? >> >> Electric Circuits >> >> The integrated circuit is nothing more than a very advanced electric >> circuit. An electric circuit is made from different electrical >> components such as transistors, >> resistors, capacitors and diodes, that are connected to each other in >> different ways. These components have different behaviors. >> >> The transistor acts like a switch. It can turn electricity on or off, or >> it can amplify current. It is used for example in computers to store >> information, >> or in stereo amplifiers to make the sound signal stronger. >> >> The resistor limits the flow of electricity and gives us the possibility >> to control the amount of current that is allowed to pass. Resistors are >> used, among >> other things, to control the volume in television sets or radios. >> >> The capacitor collects electricity and releases it all in one quick >> burst; like for instance in cameras where a tiny battery can provide >> enough energy to >> fire the flashbulb. >> >> The diode stops electricity under some conditions and allows it to pass >> only when these conditions change. This is used in, for example, >> photocells where >> a light beam that is broken triggers the diode to stop electricity from >> flowing through it. >> >> These components are like the building blocks in an electrical >> construction kit. Depending on how the components are put together when >> building the circuit, >> everything from a burglar alarm to a computer microprocessor can be >> constructed. >> >> >> The Transistor vs. the Vacuum Tube >> >> The vacuum tube and the transistor. >> ENIAC-The first digital computer >> Of the components mentioned above, the transistor is the most important >> one for the development of modern computers. Before the transistor, >> engineers had >> to use vacuum tubes. Just as the transistor, the vacuum tube can switch >> electricity on or off, or amplify a current. So why was the vacuum tube >> replaced >> by the transistor? There are several reasons. >> >> The vacuum tube looks and behaves very much like a light bulb; it >> generates a lot of heat and has a tendency to burn out. Also, compared >> to the transistor >> it is slow, big and bulky. >> >> When engineers tried to build complex circuits using the vacuum tube, >> they quickly became aware of its limitations. The first digital computer >> ENIAC, for >> example, was a huge monster that weighed over thirty tons, and consumed >> 200 kilowatts of electrical power. It had around 18,000 vacuum tubes >> that constantly >> burned out, making it very unreliable. >> >> When the transistor was invented in 1947 it was considered a revolution. >> Small, fast, reliable and effective, it quickly replaced the vacuum >> tube. Freed >> from the limitations of the vacuum tube, engineers finally could begin >> to realize the electrical constructions of their dreams, or could they? >> >> >> The Tyranny of Numbers >> >> With the small and effective transistor at their hands, electrical >> engineers of the 50s saw the possibilities of constructing far more >> advanced circuits >> than before. However, as the complexity of the circuits grew, problems >> started arising. >> >> When building a circuit, it is very important that all connections are >> intact. If not, the electrical current will be stopped on its way >> through the circuit, >> making the circuit fail. Before the integrated circuit, assembly workers >> had to construct circuits by hand, soldering each component in place and >> connecting >> them with metal wires. Engineers soon realized that manually assembling >> the vast number of tiny components needed in, for example, a computer >> would be >> impossible, especially without generating a single faulty connection. >> >> Another problem was the size of the circuits. A complex circuit, like a >> computer, was dependent on speed. If the components of the computer were >> too large >> or the wires interconnecting them too long, the electric signals >> couldn't travel fast enough through the circuit, thus making the >> computer too slow to >> be effective. >> >> So there was a problem of numbers. Advanced circuits contained so many >> components and connections that they were virtually impossible to build. >> This problem >> was known as the tyranny of numbers. >> >> >> Jack Kilby's Chip - the Monolithic Idea >> >> In the summer of 1958 Jack Kilby at Texas Instruments found a solution >> to this problem. He was newly employed and had been set to work on a >> project to build >> smaller electrical circuits. However, the path that Texas Instruments >> had chosen for its miniaturization project didn't seem to be the right >> one to Kilby. >> >> Because he was newly employed, Kilby had no vacation like the rest of >> the staff. Working alone in the lab, he saw an opportunity to find a >> solution of his >> own to the miniaturization problem. Kilby's idea was to make all the >> components and the chip out of the same block (monolith) of >> semiconductor material. >> When the rest of the workers returned from vacation, Kilby presented his >> new idea to his superiors. He was allowed to build a test version of his >> circuit. >> In September 1958, he had his first integrated circuit ready. It was >> tested and it worked perfectly! >> >> Although the first integrated circuit was pretty crude and had some >> problems, the idea was groundbreaking. By making all the parts out of >> the same block >> of material and adding the metal needed to connect them as a layer on >> top of it, there was no more need for individual discrete components. No >> more wires >> and components had to be assembled manually. The circuits could be made >> smaller and the manufacturing process could be automated. >> >> Jack Kilby is probably most famous for his invention of the integrated >> circuit, for which he received the Nobel Prize in Physics in the year >> 2000. After >> his success with the integrated circuit Kilby stayed with Texas >> Instruments and, among other things, he led the team that invented the >> hand-held calculator. >> >> >> Robert Noyce >> >> Robert Noyce came up with his own idea for the integrated circuit. He >> did it half a year later than Jack Kilby. Noyce's circuit solved several >> practical >> problems that Kilby's circuit had, mainly the problem of interconnecting >> all the components on the chip. This was done by adding the metal as a >> final layer >> and then removing some of it so that the wires needed to connect the >> components were formed. This made the integrated circuit more suitable >> for mass production. >> Besides being one of the early pioneers of the integrated circuit, >> Robert Noyce also was one of the co-founders of Intel. Intel is one of >> the largest manufacturers >> of integrated circuits in the world. >> >> Chip Production Today - in Short >> >> Stepping. >> >> Chip production today is based on photolithography. In photolithography >> a high energy UV-light is shone through a mask onto a slice of silicon >> covered with >> a photosensitive film. The mask describes the parts of the chip and the >> UV-light will only hit the areas not covered by the mask. When the film >> is developed, >> the areas hit by light are removed. Now the chip has unprotected and >> protected areas forming a pattern that is the first step to the final >> components of >> the chip. >> >> Next, the unprotected areas are processed so their electrical properties >> change. A new layer of material is added, and the entire process is then >> repeated >> to build the circuit, layer by layer. When all the components have been >> made and the circuit is complete a layer of metal is added. Just as >> before, a layer >> of photosensitive film is applied and exposed through a mask. However, >> this time the mask used describes the layout of the wires connecting all >> the parts >> of the chip. The film is developed and the unexposed parts are removed. >> Next, the metal not protected with film is removed to form the wires. >> Finally, >> the chip is tested and packaged. >> >> When making chips today, a process called "stepping" is often used. On a >> big wafer of silicon the chips are made one next to the other. The >> silicon wafer >> is moved in steps under the mask and the UV-light to expose the wafer. >> In this way, chip after chip can be made using the same mask each time. >> >> Below is a more sequential description of the process of making a modern >> integrated circuit. But let us first take a look at the special place >> where integrated >> circuits are produced - the clean room. >> >> >> The Clean Room >> >> The sizes of the components on chips produced in a modern chip >> fabrication plant are extremely small. For a better understanding of how >> small they are, >> pick a hair from your head and cut it in half. Now look at the cross >> section. On this tiny area, hard to see with the bare eye, you can fit >> thousands of >> modern transistors. >> >> With sizes this small, the production of a chip demands precision at an >> atomic level. Tiny particles like a hair, a speck of dust, a dead skin >> cell, bacteria >> or even the single particles in tobacco smoke become huge objects that >> are big enough to ruin a chip. >> >> Therefore, chip production takes place in a clean room. This is a >> specially designed room, where furniture is built from special materials >> that don't give >> off particles, and where extremely effective air filters and air >> circulation systems change the air completely up to ten times a minute. >> >> To further prevent contamination, workers wear special suits called >> "bunny suits." These protective outfits are made of ultra clean material >> and sometimes >> have their own air filtering systems. >> >> Chip Production Today - in Detail >> >> >> Building an integrated circuit like a computer chip is a very complex >> process. It is divided into two major parts, front end and back end. In >> the front >> end, you make the components of the circuit. In the back end, you add >> metal to connect the components and then you test and package the chip. >> Below is >> a simplified description of the steps. >> >> Front End - Construction of the Components >> >> 1. >> Just as in building a house, you need a construction plan to construct a >> chip. The construction plans for the chip are made and tested with a >> computer. >> >> 2. >> From the construction plans, masks with the circuit patterns are made. >> >> 3. >> Under precisely monitored conditions, a pure silicon crystal is grown. >> Circuit manufacturing demands the use of crystals with an extremely high >> grade of >> perfection. >> >> 4. >> The silicon is sawed into thin wafers with a diamond saw. The wafers are >> then polished in a number of steps until their surface has a perfect >> mirror-like >> finish. >> >> 5. >> The silicon wafer is covered with a layer of insulating silicon oxide. >> >> 6. >> A covering film of protective material is put on top of the insulating >> silicon oxide. This material, a bit like the film in any ordinary >> camera, is sensitive >> to light. >> >> >> >> 7. >> UV-light is shone through a mask and onto the chip. On the parts of the >> chip that are hit by light, the protective material breaks apart. >> >> >> >> 8. >> The wafer is developed, rinsed and baked. The development process >> removes the parts of the protective material exposed to light. >> >> >> 9. >> The wafer is treated with chemicals in a process called "etching." This >> removes the unprotected insulating material, creating a pattern of >> non-protected >> silicon wafer parts surrounded by areas protected by silicon oxide. >> >> >> 10. >> The wafer is run through a process that alters the electrical properties >> of the unprotected areas of the wafer. This process is called "doping." >> Steps 5-10 >> are repeated to build the integrated circuit, layer by layer. Other >> layers of conducting or isolating layers may also be added to make the >> components. >> >> Back End - Adding the Connecting Wires >> >> 11. >> Finally, when all the components of the chip are ready, metal is added >> to connect the components to each other in a process called >> metalization. This is >> done in a way similar to the making of the components. First a >> conducting metal like copper is deposited over the chip. >> >> 12. >> On top of the metal a layer of UV-sensitive photo resist is added. >> >> >> >> 13. >> Next, a mask that describes the desired layout of the metal wires >> connecting the components of the chip is used. UV-light is shone through >> this mask. The >> light hits the photo resist that isn't protected by the mask. >> >> >> >> 14. >> In the next step, chemicals are used to remove the photo resist hit by >> UV-light. >> >> >> 15. >> Another step of etching removes the metal not protected by photo resist. >> >> >> 16. >> This leaves a pattern of metal that is the same as the one described by >> the mask. Now, the chip has a layer of wires that connect its different >> components. >> >> 17. >> Today, most integrated circuits need more than one layer of wires. >> Advanced circuits may need up to five different layers of metal to form >> all the necessary >> connections. In the last picture we have added another layer of metal to >> our example. As you can see, a layer of insulating material is put >> between the >> two metal layers to prevent the wires from connecting in the wrong >> places. Of course, to add the second layer we had to go through the same >> steps as when >> adding the first layer of metal. >> >> >> 18. >> When the final layer of connecting metal wires have been added, the >> chips on the silicon wafer are tested to see if they perform as >> intended. >> >> >> >> 19. >> The chips on the wafer are separated with a diamond saw to form >> individual integrated circuits. >> >> 20. >> Finally, each chip is packed into the protective casing and subjected to >> another series of tests. The chip is now finished and ready to be >> shipped to manufacturers >> of digital devices around the world. >> >> >> >> The Evolution of the Integrated Circuit >> >> J >> >> The integrated circuit has come a long way since Jack Kilby's first >> prototype. His idea founded a new industry and is the key element behind >> our computerized >> society. Today the most advanced circuits contain several hundred >> millions of components on an area no larger than a fingernail. The >> transistors on these >> chips are around 90 nm, that is 0.00009 millimeters*, which means that >> you could fit hundreds of these transistors inside a red blood cell. >> >> Each year computer chips become more powerful yet cheaper than the year >> before. Gordon Moore, one of the early integrated circuit pioneers and >> founders >> of Intel once said, "If the auto industry advanced as rapidly as the >> semiconductor industry, a Rolls Royce would get a half a million miles >> per gallon, >> and it would be cheaper to throw it away than to park it."** >> >> >> ********************************************************************** >> This message and its attachments may contain legally >> privileged or confidential information. If you are not the >> intended recipient, you must not disclose or use the >> information contained in it. If you have received this e-mail >> in error, please notify the sender immediately by return >> e-mail and delete the e-mail. >> >> Any content of this message and its attachments which >> does not relate to the official business of Eraring Energy >> must be taken not to have been sent or endorsed by >> Eraring Energy. No warranty is made that the e-mail or >> attachment(s) are free from computer virus or other defect. >> ********************************************************************** >> >> >> >> [Non-text portions of this message have been removed] >> >> >> >> To listen to the show archives go to link >> http://acbradio.org/handyman.html >> or >> ftp://ftp.acbradio.org/acbradio-archives/handyman/ >> >> The Pod Cast address for the Blind Handy Man Show is. >> http://www.acbradio.org/news/xml/podcast.php?pgm=saturday >> >> Visit The Blind Handy Man Files Page To Review Contributions From Various >> List Members At The Following address: >> http://www.jaws-users.com/handyman/ >> >> Visit the archives page at the following address >> http://www.mail-archive.com/[email protected]/ >> >> If you would like to join the Blind Computing list, then visit the >> following address for more information: >> http://jaws-users.com/mailman/listinfo/blind-computing_jaws-users.com >> >> For a complete list of email commands pertaining to the Blind Handy Man >> list just send a blank message to: >> [EMAIL PROTECTED] >> Yahoo! Groups Links >> >> >> >> >> >> >> -- >> No virus found in this incoming message. >> Checked by AVG Free Edition. >> Version: 7.5.484 / Virus Database: 269.12.9/975 - Release Date: 8/26/2007 >> 9:34 PM >> > >
